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Ethnic minorities in China - Wikipedia
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1History of ethnicity in China
Toggle History of ethnicity in China subsection
1.1Early history
1.2Distinguishing nationalities in the PRC
1.3Reform and opening up
2Ethnic groups
Toggle Ethnic groups subsection
2.1Demographics
2.2List of ethnic groups
2.3Undistinguished ethnic groups
3Guarantee of rights and interests
4Religions and their most common affiliations
5Ethnic Minority Representation in the leadership of the CCP
6See also
7References
8Further reading
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
55 recognized ethnic minorities in Mainland China
For a list of ethnic groups in China, see List of ethnic groups in China and Languages of China.
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Ethnic minorities in China are the non-Han population in the People's Republic of China (PRC).
The PRC officially recognizes 55 ethnic minority groups within China in addition to the Han majority.[1] As of 2010, the combined population of officially-recognized minority groups comprised 8.49% of the population of Mainland China.[2] In addition to these officially-recognized ethnic minority groups, there are Chinese nationals who privately classify themselves as members of unrecognized ethnic groups, such as the very small Chinese Jewish, Tuvan, and Ili Turk communities, as well as the much larger Oirat and Japanese communities.
In Chinese, 'ethnic minority' has translated to shǎoshù mínzú (少數民族), wherein mínzú (民族) means 'nationality' or 'nation' (as in ethnic group)—in line with the Soviet concept of ethnicity—and shǎoshù (少數) means 'minority'.[3][4][5] Since the anthropological concept of ethnicity does not precisely match the Chinese or Soviet concepts (which are defined and regulated by the state), some scholars use the neologism zúqún (族群, 'ethnic group') to unambiguously refer to ethnicity.[6] Including shaoshu mínzu, Sun Yat-sen used the term zhōnghuá mínzú (中華民族, 'Chinese nation' or 'Chinese nationality') to reflect his belief that all of China's ethnic groups were parts of a single Chinese nation.[7]
The ethnic minority groups officially recognized by the PRC include those residing within mainland China as well as Taiwanese aborigines. However, the PRC does not accept the term aborigines or its variations, since it might suggest that Han people are not indigenous to Taiwan, or that Taiwan is not a core territory of China. Also, where the Republic of China (ROC) government in Taiwan, as of 2020, officially recognises 16 Taiwanese aboriginal tribes, the PRC classifies them all under a single ethnic group, the Gāoshān (高山, 'high mountain') minority, out of reluctance to recognize ethnic classifications derived from the work of Japanese anthropologists during the Japanese colonial era. (This is despite the fact that not all Taiwanese aborigines have traditional territories in the mountains; for example, the Tao People traditionally inhabit the island of Lanyu.) The regional governments of Hong Kong and Macau do not use this ethnic classification system, so figures by the PRC government exclude these two territories.
History of ethnicity in China[edit]
Further information: Ethnic groups in Chinese history and Racism in China
Early history[edit]
An 8th-century Tang dynasty Chinese clay figurine of a Sogdian man (an Eastern Iranian person) wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, possibly a camel rider or even a Zoroastrian priest engaging in a ritual at a fire temple, since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva; Museum of Oriental Art (Turin), Italy.[8]
Throughout much of recorded Chinese history, there was little attempt by Chinese authors to separate the concepts of nationality, culture, and ethnicity.[9] Those outside of the reach of imperial control and dominant patterns of Chinese culture were thought of as separate groups of people regardless of whether they would today be considered as a separate ethnicity. The self-conceptualization of Han largely revolved around this center-periphery cultural divide. Thus, the process of Sinicization throughout history had as much to do with the spreading of imperial rule and culture as it did with actual ethnic migration.[citation needed]
This understanding persisted (with some changes during the Qing dynasty due to the importation of Western ideas) until the Communists seized power in 1949. Their understanding of minorities had been heavily influenced by the policies of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin—and they also influenced the Communist regimes in the neighbouring countries of Vietnam and Laos[10]—but the Soviet definition of minorities did not cleanly map onto the Chinese people's historical definition of minorities. Soviet thinking about minorities was based on the belief that a nation consisted of people who spoke and wrote a common language, people whose culture was historic, and historic territory. Therefore, The people who inhabited each nation had the theoretical right to secede from a proposed federated government.[11] This differed from the previous way of thinking mainly in that instead of defining all those under imperial rule as Chinese, the nation (as defined as a space upon which power is projected) and ethnicity (the identity of the governed) were now separate; being under central rule no longer automatically meant being defined as Chinese. The Soviet model as applied to China gave rise to the autonomous regions in China; these areas were thought to be their own nations that had theoretical autonomy from the central government.[12]
During World War II, the American Asiatic Association published an entry in the 40th volume of their academic journal, Asia, concerning the problem of whether Chinese Muslims were Chinese or a separate 'ethnic minority', and the factors which led to either classification.[13] It tackled the question of why Muslims who were Chinese were considered a different race from other Chinese, and the separate question of whether all Muslims in China were united into one race. The first problem was posed with a comparison to Chinese Buddhists, who were not considered a separate race.[14] It concluded that the reason Chinese Muslims were considered separate was because of different factors like religion, culture, military feudalism, and that considering them a "racial minority" was wrong. It also came to the conclusion that the Japanese military spokesman was the only person who was propagating the false assertion that Chinese Muslims had "racial unity", which was disproved by the fact that Muslims in China were composed of multitudes of different races, separate from each other as were the "Germans and English", such as the Mongol Hui of Hezhou, Salar Hui of Qinghai, and Chan Tou Hui of Turkistan. The Japanese were trying to spread the lie that Chinese Muslims were one race, in order to propagate the claim that they should be separated from China into an "independent political organization."[13]
Distinguishing nationalities in the PRC[edit]
Early documents of the People's Republic of China (PRC), such as the 1982 constitution,[15] followed the Soviet practice of identifying 'nationalities' in the sense of ethnic groups (the concept is not to be confused with state citizenship).[3][5] The Chinese term mínzú (民族), borrowed from Japanese during the Republican period, translates this Soviet concept. The English translation (common in official documents) of 'nationality' again follows Soviet practice; in order to avoid confusion, however, alternative phraseology such as 'ethnicity' or 'ethnic group' is often used. Since the anthropological concept of ethnicity does not precisely match the Chinese or Soviet concepts (which, after all, are defined and regulated by the state), some scholars use the neologism zuqun (族群, 'ethnic group') to unambiguously refer to ethnicity.[6]
After 1949, a team of social scientists was assembled to enumerate the various mínzú. An immediate difficulty was that identities "on the ground" did not necessarily follow logically from things like shared languages or cultures; two neighboring regions might seem to share a common culture, and yet insist on their distinct identities.[16] Since this would lead to absurd results—every village could hardly send a representative to the National People's Congress—the social scientists attempted to construct coherent groupings of minorities using language as the main criterion for differentiation. Thus some villages with very different cultural practices and histories were lumped together under the same ethnonym. For example, the "Zhuang" ethnic group largely served as a catch-all for various hill villages in Guangxi province.[17]
The actual census taking of who was and was not a minority further eroded the neat differentiating lines the social scientists had drawn up. Individual ethnic status was often awarded based on family tree histories. If one had a father (or mother, for ethnic groups that were considered matrilineal) that had a surname considered to belong to a particular ethnic group, then one was awarded the coveted minority status. This had the result that villages that had previously thought of themselves as homogenous and essentially Han were now divided between those with ethnic identity and those without.[18]
The team of social scientists that assembled the list of all the ethnic groups also described what they considered to be the key differentiating attributes between each group, including culture, custom, and language. The center then used this list of attributes to select representatives of each group to perform on television and radio in an attempt to reinforce the government's narrative of China as a multi-ethnic state and to prevent the culture of the minority ethnic groups from assimilating by the Han and the rest of the world.[19] However, with the development of modern technology, these attempts brought little effect. In fact, many of those labeled as specific minorities bore no relationship to the music, clothing, and other practices presented with images and representations of "their people" in the media.
Under this process, 39 ethnic groups were recognized by the first national census in 1954. This further increased to 54 by the second national census in 1964, with the Lhoba group added in 1965. The last change was the addition of the Jino people in 1979, bringing the number of recognized ethnic groups to the current 56.
Reform and opening up[edit]
Ethnolinguistic map of China in 1983.[20]However, as China opened up and reformed post-1979, many Han acquired enough money to begin to travel. One of the favorite travel experiences of the wealthy was visits to minority areas, to see the exotic rituals of the minority peoples.[21][22] Responding to this interest, many minority entrepreneurs, despite themselves perhaps never having grown up practicing the dances, rituals, or songs themselves, began to cater to these tourists by performing acts similar to what the older generation or the local residents told. In this way, the groups of people named Zhuang or other named minorities have begun to have more in common with their fellow co-ethnics, as they have adopted similar self-conceptions in response to the economic demand of consumers for their performances.[citation needed]
The categorization of 55 minority groups was a major step forward from denial of the existence of different ethnic groups in China which had been the policy of Sun Yet-Sen's Nationalist government that came to power in 1911, which also engaged in the common use of derogatory names to refer to minorities (a practice officially abolished in 1951).[3] However, the Communist Party's categorization was also rampantly criticized since it reduced the number of recognized ethnic groups by eightfold,[citation needed] and today the wei shibie menzu (literally 'undistinguished ethnic groups') total more than 730,000 people. These groups include Geija, Khmu, Kucong, Mang, Deng, Sherpas, Bajia and Youtai (Jewish).[citation needed]
After the breakup of Yugoslavia and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, there was a shift in official conceptions of minorities in China: rather than defining them as 'nationalities', they became 'ethnic groups'. The difference between 'nationality' and 'ethnicity', as Uradyn Erden-Bulag describes it, is that the former treats the minorities of China as societies with "a fully functional division of labor," history, and territory, whereas the latter treats minorities as a "category" and focuses on their maintenance of boundaries and their self-definition in relation to the majority group. These changes are reflected in uses of the term mínzú (民族) and its translations. The official journal Minzu Tuanjie changed its English name from Nationality Unity to Ethnic Unity in 1995. Similarly, the Central University for Nationalities changed its name to Minzu University of China. Scholars began to prefer the term zuqun (族群, 'ethnic group') over minzu.[23] The Chinese model for identifying and categorizing ethnic minorities established at the founding of the PRC followed the Soviet model, drawing inspiration from Joseph Stalin's 1953 'four commons' criteria to identify ethnic groups: "(1) a distinct language; (2) a recognized indigenous homeland or common territory; (3) a common economic life; and (4) a strong sense of identity and distinctive customs, including dress, religion and foods."[citation needed]
Following the breakup of the Soviet Union intellectuals and policymakers within China began to argue that the designation of minority groups could be a threat to the country. Violence in Xinjiang and Tibet provided evidence for this argument. Beijing University professor Ma Rong argued that the Chinese Communist Party had unwittingly created a "dual structure" of governance in which the representation and identity given to recognized ethnic groups would increase ethnocultural differences and create social conflict. He recommended new policies of ethnic fusion and assimilation. These proposals made by Ma and others were controversial at the time but they would find a place at the heart of the policy of the Xi Jinping administration. Xi has shifted state policy towards assimilation in what he calls the "grand minzu fusion" or "the coalescing of blood and minds."[24] The CCP under Xi has reacted to violence committed by a number of Uyghurs by the imprisonment of this group in the Xinjiang internment camps.[25]
In 2020 a Han Chinese was named director of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission for the first time since 1954.[24]
Ethnic groups[edit]
See also: List of ethnic groups in China
The Long-horn tribe, a small branch of ethnic Miao in the western part of Guizhou Province
China is officially composed of 56 ethnic groups (55 minorities plus the dominant Han). However, some of the ethnic groups as classified by the PRC government contain, within themselves, diverse groups of people. Various groups of the Miao minority, for example, speak different dialects of the Hmong–Mien languages, Tai–Kadai languages, and Chinese, and practice a variety of different cultural customs.[26] Whereas in many nations a citizen's minority status is defined by their self-identification as an ethnic minority, in China minority nationality (xiaoshu minzu) is fixed at birth, a practice that can be traced to the foundation of the PRC, when the Communist Party commissioned studies to categorize and delineate groups based on research teams' investigation of minorities' social history, economic life, language and religion in China's different regions.
The degree of variation between ethnic groups is not consistent. Many ethnic groups are described as having unique characteristics from other minority groups and from the dominant Han, but there are also some that are very similar to the Han majority group. Most Hui Chinese are indistinguishable from Han Chinese except for the fact that they practice Islam, and most Manchu are considered to be largely assimilated into dominant Han society.[citation needed]
China's official 55 minorities are located primarily in the south, west, and north of China. Only Tibet Autonomous Region and Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region have a majority population of official minorities, while all other provinces, municipalities and regions of China have a Han majority. In Beijing itself, the Han ethnic composition makes up nearly 96% of the total population, while the ethnic minority total is 4.31%, or a population of 584,692 (as of 2008).[citation needed]
Much of the dialog within China regarding minorities has generally portrayed minorities as being further behind the Han in progress toward modernization and modernity. Minority groups are often portrayed as rustic, wild, and antiquated. As the government often portrays itself as a benefactor of the minorities, those less willing to assimilate (despite the offers of assistance) are portrayed as masculine, violent, and unreasonable. Groups that have been depicted this way include the Tibetans, Uyghurs and the Mongols.[27] Groups that have been more willing to assimilate (and accept the help of the government) are often portrayed as feminine and sexual, including the Miao, Tujia and the Dai.[19]
Demographics[edit]
The largest ethnic group, Han, according to a 2005 sampling, constitute about 91.9% of the total population. The next largest ethnic groups in terms of population include the Zhuang (18 million), Manchu (10 million), Hui (10 million), Miao (9 million), Uyghur (8 million), Yi (7.8 million), Tujia (8 million), Mongols (5.8 million), Tibetans (5.4 million), Buyei (3 million), Yao (3.1 million), and Koreans (2.5 million). Minority populations have grown fast due to them being unaffected by the One Child Policy.[28]
List of ethnic groups[edit]
Ethnic minorities with low populations (fewer than 100,000 individuals) were not taken into account here.[29]
Ethnic Hans
Beijing Hans
Chongqing Hans
Gan Hans
Gansu Hans
Guizhou Hans
Hainan Hans
Hakka Hans
Hebei Hans
Heilongjiang Hans
Henan Hans
Hubei Hans
Jiaoliao Hans
Jilin & Liaoning Hans
Lower Yangtze Hans
Min Hans
Shaanxi Hans
Shandong Hans
Shanxi Hans
Sichuan Hans
Taiwan Hans
Tianjin Hans
Wu Hans
Xiang Hans
Yue Hans
Yunnan Hans
Ethnic minorities
Bai
Chinese Koreans
Dai
Dong
Evenki
Hani
Hui
Jingpo
Kazakhs
Kyrgyz
Lahu
Li
Lisu
Manchus
Maonan
Miao
Taiwanese indigenous people
Tajiks
Tibetans
Tujia
Uyghurs
Wa
Yao
Yi
Zhuang
Mongolian (sub)groups
Buryats
Chinese Mongols
Daurs
Khalka Mongols
Oirat Mongols
Undistinguished ethnic groups[edit]
Main article: Unrecognized ethnic groups in China
"Undistinguished" ethnic groups are ethnic groups that have not been officially recognized or classified by the central government. The group numbers more than 730,000 people, and would constitute the twentieth most populous ethnic group of China if taken as a single group. The vast majority of this group is found in Guizhou Province.[citation needed]
These "undistinguished ethnic groups" do not include groups that have been controversially classified into existing groups. For example, the Mosuo are officially classified as Naxi, and the Chuanqing are classified as Han Chinese, but they reject these classifications and view themselves as separate ethnic groups.
Citizens of mainland China who are of foreign origin are classified using yet another separate label: "foreigners naturalized into the Chinese citizenship" (外国人入中国籍). However, if a newly naturalized citizen already belongs to a recognized existing group among the 56 ethnic groups, then he or she is classified into that ethnic group rather than the special label.
Guarantee of rights and interests[edit]
Major Autonomous areas within Yunnan. (excluding Hui)
Major Autonomous areas within Guizhou. (excluding Hui)
Main article: Affirmative action in China
The PRC's Constitution and laws guarantee equal rights to all ethnic groups in China and help promote ethnic minority groups' economic and cultural development.[30] The constitution prohibits both discrimination and acts of disunity.[31] Articles 115 and 116 of the constitution state that in the provincial level autonomous regions and the autonomous prefectures and counties set aside for minority administration, local states via the local people's congresses "have the power to enact regulations on the exercise of autonomy and other separate regulations in the light of the political, economic, and cultural characteristics" of those areas.[31]
One notable preferential treatment ethnic minorities enjoy was their exemption from the population growth control of the One-Child Policy. But according to an investigative report by The Associated Press published at 28 June 2020, the Chinese government is taking draconian measures to slash birth rates among Uighurs and other minorities as part of a sweeping campaign to curb its Muslim population, even as it encourages some of the country's Han majority to have more children.[32]
While individual women have spoken out before about forced birth control, the practice is far more widespread and systematic than previously known, according to an AP investigation based on government statistics, state documents and interviews with 30 ex-detainees, family members and a former detention camp instructor. The campaign over the past four years in the far west region of Xinjiang is leading to what some experts are calling a form of "demographic genocide".[32] Ethnic minorities enjoy other special exemptions which vary by province- these include lower tax thresholds and lower required scores for entry into university. The use of these measures to raise ethnic minorities' human capital is seen by the central government as important for improving the economic development of ethnic minorities. Ethnic minorities are represented in the National People's Congress as well as governments at the provincial and prefectural levels. Some ethnic minorities in China live in what are described as ethnic autonomous areas. These "regional autonomies" guarantee ethnic minorities the freedom to use and develop their ethnic languages, and to maintain their own cultural and social customs. In addition, the PRC government has provided preferential economic development and aid to areas where ethnic minorities live. Furthermore, the Chinese government has allowed and encouraged the involvement of ethnic minority participation in the party. Even though ethnic minorities in China are granted specific rights and freedoms, many ethnic minorities still have headed towards the urban life in order to obtain a well paid job.[33]
Minorities have widely benefited from China's minimum livelihood guarantee program (known as the dibao) a programme introduced nationwide in 1999 whose number of participants had reached nearly twenty million by 2012. The nature of the selection process entails that the programme's providers be proactive and willing in seeking out impoverished prospective participants, as opposed to more comprehensive welfare schemes such as the Urban Resident Basic Medical Insurance Scheme (URBMI), which is universally implemented. As such, the selection process for participants in the dibao programme has generated a perception among observers of the scheme that this programme have been used to mitigate dissent and neutralize any threat to the government that could lead to unrest- including negative performance evaluations of local officials.[citation needed]
The Chinese government has committed a series of ongoing human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other ethnic and religious minorities in Xinjiang that is often characterized as Uyghurs genocide starting in 2014.
Religions and their most common affiliations[edit]
Buddhism/Taoism — the Miao (minority), Lisu (minority), Bai, Bulang, Dai, Jinuo, Jing, Jingpo, Mongol, Manchu, Naxi (including Mosuo), Nu, Tai, Tibetan, Zhuang (minority), Yi (minority), and Yugur ("Yellow Uyghurs").[34]
Eastern Orthodox Christianity — the Russians
Islam — the Hui, Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Dongxiang people, Kyrgyz people, Salar, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Bonans, and Tatars.[35]
Judaism — Kaifeng Jews
Protestant Christianity — the Lisu (70%; see Lisu Church)
Shamanism/Animism — Daur, Ewenkis, Oroqen, Hezhen, and Derung.
Ethnic Minority Representation in the leadership of the CCP[edit]
Since the People's Republic of China was established, ethnic minorities have made up around 10% of the Central Committee,[36][better source needed] whereas the rest of the members are of the Han Chinese ethnic group. That being said, a majority of the ethnic minority members of the Central Committee are alternate members.[36][better source needed] In the 19th Congress there are only 16 full time members who are ethnic minorities.[36][better source needed] While only 6 of the 55 ethnic minorities are represented in the Central Committee,[37] the percentage of ethnic minority members in the Central Committee exceeds the percentage of ethnic minority population in China. Ethnic minorities only make up roughly 7.5% of China's population, whereas 92% are Han Chinese,[38] the dominant ethnicity. Still the majority of ethnic minorities are severely underrepresented in the Central Committee.
A study conducted by three scholars in 2012, "Getting Ahead in the Communist Party: Explaining the Advancement of Central Committee Members", found that ethnic minorities had an advantage when being considered for promotion in Congress. They explain this phenomenon through the United Front policies that China has been engaged with since the Reform Era.[39] These policies attempt to promote stability and legitimacy among the ethnic minority population through concerted efforts to involve them in the country's politics . Thus the authors argue this is why ethnic minorities enjoyed an advantage in the Reform Period. Other scholars add that the Party is eager to include ethnic minorities in the government because of the backlash that China has faced from the rest of the world concerning the way they treated Tibet and most recently the Uyghurs in Xinjiang.[40] Including ethnic minorities in the Party's leadership adds to the "United Front" that China wants to portray.[41] Though they are included, it remains unclear as to what amount of influence they assert.[42]
See also[edit]
China portal
Affirmative action in China
Han Chinese subgroups
China National Ethnic Song and Dance Ensemble
Chinese nationality law
Demographics of the People's Republic of China and Taiwan
Demographics of China#Population density and distribution
Dzungar genocide
Ethnic groups in Chinese history
Ethnic issues in China
Graphic pejoratives in written Chinese
Human rights in China
List of Chinese administrative divisions by ethnic group
List of endangered languages in China
List of ethnic groups in China
Minzu University of China, a university in Beijing designated for ethnic minorities.
Secession in China
Sinocentrism
Taiwanese indigenous peoples
Unrecognized ethnic groups in China
Persecution of Uyghurs in China
Zhonghua minzu
References[edit]
^ "Ethnic Groups in China". English.gov.cn. 26 August 2014.
^ Wang Guanqun, ed. (28 April 2011). "Han Chinese proportion in China's population drops: census data". English.news.cn. Archived from the original on 2 May 2011.
^ a b c Binggao, Jin. [1987] 1988. "When Does The Word 'Minority Nationality' [Shaoshu Minzu] [First] Appear in Our Country?," translated by Tibet Information Network. Bulletin of the History of the Tibet Communist Party 1(19). p. 45 ff.
^ Chang, Ntxheb. "Conclusion: Splendid China and Being Minzu." Being Shaoshu Minzu in Contemporary China. US: Boston College. via Mediakron.
^ a b Moseley, George. "China's Fresh Approach to the National Minority Question." The China Quarterly.
^ a b Perry, Elizabeth J.; Selden, Mark, eds. (5 April 2010), "Alter/native Mongolian identity: From nationality to ethnic group", Chinese Society (0 ed.), Routledge, p. 284, doi:10.4324/9780203856314-17, ISBN 978-0-203-85631-4
^ Landis, Dan, and Rosita D. Albert. 2012. Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International Perspectives. Springer. ISBN 978-1461404477. p. 182 (archived).
^ Lee Lawrence. (3 September 2011). "A Mysterious Stranger in China". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
^ Harrell, Stephan (1996). Cultural encounters on China's ethnic frontiers. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-97380-7.
^ Michaud J., 2009 Handling Mountain Minorities in China, Vietnam and Laos : From History to Current Issues. Asian Ethnicity 10(1): 25–49.
^ Blaut, J. M. (1987). "The Theory of National Minorities". The National Question: Decolonizing the Theory of Nationalism. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-0-86232-439-1.
^ Ma, Rong (June 2010). "The Soviet Model's Influence and the Current Debate on Ethnic Relations". Global Asia.
^ a b American Asiatic Association (1940). Asia: journal of the American Asiatic Association, Volume 40. Asia Pub. Co. p. 660. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
^ Hartford Seminary Foundation (1941). The Moslem World, Volumes 31–34. Hartford Seminary Foundation. p. 182. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
^ Constitution of the People's Republic of China Archived 23 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine, 4 December 1982. Retrieved 27 February 2007.
^ Mullaney, Thomas (2010). "Seeing for the State: The Role of Social Scientists in China's Ethnic Classification Project". Asian Ethnicity. 11 (3): 325–342. doi:10.1080/14631369.2010.510874. S2CID 145787875.
^ Kaup, Katherine Palmer (2002). "Regionalism versus Ethnic nationalism". The China Quarterly. 172: 863–884. doi:10.1017/s0009443902000530. S2CID 154596032.
^ Mullaney, Thomas (2004). "Ethnic Classification Writ Large: The 1954 Yunnan Province Ethnic Classification Project and its Foundations in Republican-Era Taxonomic Thought". China Information. 18 (2): 207–241. doi:10.1177/0920203X04044685. S2CID 146596892.
^ a b Gladney, Dru C. (1994). "Representing Nationality in China: Refiguring Majority/Minority Identities". The Journal of Asian Studies. 53 (1): 92–123. doi:10.2307/2059528. JSTOR 2059528. S2CID 162540993.
^ "China - Ethnolinguistic Groups 1983". University of Texas Libraries. 1983. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
^ Oakes, Timothy S. (31 December 2017), Picard, Michel; Wood, Robert E. (eds.), "2. Ethnic Tourism in Rural Guizhou: Sense of Place and the Commerce of Authenticity", Tourism, Ethnicity, and the State in Asian and Pacific Societies, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 35–70, doi:10.1515/9780824865252-003, ISBN 978-0-8248-6525-2
^ Hillman, Ben (2003). "Paradise under Construction: Minorities, Myths and Modernity in Northwest Yunnan" (PDF). Asian Ethnicity. 4 (2): 177–190. doi:10.1080/14631360301654. S2CID 143987010.
^ Perry, Elizabeth J.; Selden, Mark; Uradyn Erden-Bulag. "Alter/native Mongolian identity: From nationality to ethnic group". Chinese Society: Change, conflict and resistance. Routledge. pp. 261–287. ISBN 978-0-203-85631-4.
^ a b Leibold, James. "Beyond Xinjiang: Xi Jinping's Ethnic Crackdown". thediplomat.com. The Diplomat. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
^ "Dismantling China's Muslim gulag in Xinjiang is not enough". The Economist. 9 January 2020. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 16 November 2020. A tiny minority have made their displeasure known violently. China has reacted by building a vast network of prison camps and tossing perhaps 1m Uighurs into it for "vocational training"
^ Xiaobing Li, and Patrick Fuliang Shan, Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation and Resistance, Lexington and Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.
^ Hillman, Ben (2006). "Macho Minority: Masculinity and Ethnicity on the Edge of Tibet" (PDF). Modern China. 32 (2): 251–272. doi:10.1177/0097700405286186. S2CID 53869758. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2016. Despite tremendous diversity among this broad and dubious ethnic category, the Han became the personification of the new nation and a symbol of modernity and progress. The new Communist Party leaders continued this project, presenting the Han peoples as the harbingers of modernity and progress, a beacon to the non- Han peoples of the political periphery who found themselves unwitting members of a new nation-state defined by clear borders (...) Ethnic minorities entered the national imagination as the primitive Other against which China's modern national identity could be constructed.
^ "MINORITIES IN CHINA | Facts and Details". Factsanddetails.com.
^ "China & Mongolia Regional DNA Project". Eupedia.
^ "Constitution of the People's Republic of China".
^ a b Lin, Chun (2006). The transformation of Chinese socialism. Durham [N.C.]: Duke University Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8223-3785-0. OCLC 63178961.
^ a b AP’s global investigative team (28 June 2020). "China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization". Associated Press. Retrieved 1 August 2020.
^ Yardley, Jim (11 May 2008). "China Sticking With One-Child Policy". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 November 2008.
^ "Ethnic Groups". China.org.cn. Retrieved 7 March 2019.
^ Jackie Armijo (Winter 2006). "Islamic Education in China". Harvard Asia Quarterly. 10 (1). Archived from the original on 28 September 2007.
^ a b c "Periphery: Ethnic Minority Candidates for the 20th Central Committee". China-US Focus. 11 June 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
^ "Who Rules China? Comparing Representation on the NPC and Central Committee". MacroPolo. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
^ Solis, Jacqueline. "LibGuides: Chinese Ethnic Groups: Overview Statistics". guides.lib.unc.edu. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
^ Shih, Victor; Adolph, Christopher; Liu, Mingxing (February 2012). "Getting Ahead in the Communist Party: Explaining the Advancement of Central Committee Members in China". American Political Science Review. 106 (1): 166–187. doi:10.1017/S0003055411000566. ISSN 0003-0554.
^ "Uyghurs | Human Rights Watch". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
^ Li, Cheng (2008). "Ethnic Minority Elites in China's Party-State Leadership". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "How much of the NPC is composed of women and ethnic minorities?". South China Morning Post. 11 March 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
Further reading[edit]
Tang, Wenfang and He, Gaochao. "Separate but Loyal: Ethnicity and Nationalism in China." Policy Studies 56. East–West Center.
China Ethnic Statistical Yearbook 2016
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Chinese Culture
Chinese Ethnic Groups
Written by Fercility JiangUpdated Jul. 18, 2023
China is a multi-ethnic nation. Besides Han Chinese, who make up over 90% of China's population, there are officially 55 minority ethnic groups living in China. Their costumes, festivals, and customs can be unique and colorful and are some of China's unique attractions.
The 10 Most Popular Minorities with Tourists
Most of the 10 most popular minorities in China live in unusually beautiful countryside or natural areas. Tourists like to see that as well as enjoy their distinctive cuisines and entertainment. Some such as the Tibetans, Manchus, and Uyghurs have notable ancient architecture, while others such as the Zhuang and Yao are noted for their beautiful terraced fields.
1. Zhuang - The Largest Ethnic Group
Longji Ancient Zhuang Village
The Zhuang ethnic group is the largest of the 55 minorities in China. About 18 million live in the south and southeast. Their main homeland is in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Yunnan Province. Others live in Hunan, Guizhou and Sichuan provinces.
Ethnic traits: Their main regional attractions are their beautiful countryside areas with intricate and beautifully scenic terraced fields such as Longji Old Zhuang Village (龙脊古壮寨). For an enjoyable visit, see our 4-Day Guilin City Essence and Longji Terraced Fields Hiking Tour.
2. Mongolians - The Most Famous Ethnic Minority
Mongolian people
The Mongolian ethnic group is best known for conquering most of Eurasia and establishing a large empire almost 1,000 years ago. The Mongolian Yuan Empire lasted about 100 years until 1368. Now, 6 million remain in China in Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Xinjiang, Hebei, and Qinghai Provinces.
Ethnic traits: They love hearty meat dishes, wrestling and horseback riding. Their annual Naadam summer sporting events are popular highlights you can visit with us.
3. The Hui - Chinese Muslims, the Most Widespread Minority
Lanzhou Hand Pulled Noodles Soup with beef is served in Hui restaurants all over China.
The Hui ethnic group is China's most widely distributed ethnic minority who are distinguished mainly by being ethnically Muslim. There is a sizeable population of 11 million. They live in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region in northwestern China and in many cities and villages in the provinces of Gansu, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Hebei, Henan, Sichuan, Yunnan and Shandong.
Ethnic traits: Though they are culturally like the Han, they are distinguished by being converts to Islam or being descendants of Muslims. They don't have a language of their own, and most keep almost no Muslim customs. They are unlike the Uyghurs who retain their own language and culture. Hui are known across China for their popular Lanzhou noodle restaurants.
4. Miao - Distinctive Culture and Architecture
A Miao girl dressed in their silver clothing and jewelry.
The Miao ethnic group consists of about 10 million people in China, and their traditional homeland is around the area of Guizhou where 4 million now live. But they were scattered widespread by persecution .
Ethnic traits: The Miao are quite interesting to visit. They prefer silver, and the women clothe themselves in silver suits and jewelry, and these make good souvenirs. They were fiercely independent, and love music. They have a distinctive style of music and architectural style that tourists can appreciate.
5. Dong - Famed for Lusheng Music and Architecture
Chengyang Bridge
The Dong live mainly in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, and Guangxi. Their villages are often located near Miao villages in Guizhou, and there are about 3 million of them in China. Their language is related to Thai.
Like the Miao, the Dong are known for fine Lusheng music. They are famed for distinctive polyphonal musical concerts, and their architecture and craftsmanship as exemplified in Chengyang Bridge in the Sanjiang Village area is distinctive and appreciated by tourists.
6. Uyghur - The Largest Ethnic Group in Xinjiang
The Jiaohe Ruins
The Uyghurs are a distinctive minority whose homeland is Xinjiang. About 11 million live there and in other parts of China, especially in Hunan and Henan.
Their language is related to Turkish. Around China, they are known for their "Lanzhou noodle" restaurants and delicious Xinjiang-style food. They have a long and colorful history on the Silk Road. Turpan, for example, is an excellent place to see their ancient culture and architecture such as the Jaiohe Ruins.
7. Manchu - The Creators of the Qing Empire
The Forbidden City is where you can see how the Manchu dynastic clan lived together.
The Manchu ethnic group in China are the descendants of the Manchus and Mongolians who invaded the Ming Empire and created the Qing Empire (1664–1912). Now about 11 million live in China. They now live mainly in their ancestral territories in the provinces of Liaoning, Heilongjiang, and Jilin.
After the founding of the Qing Empire, the Manchus were assimilated with the majority Han. Now, only a small percentage speak the traditional language. You can learn about their history and empire at the Palace Museum.
8. Tibetans - Descendants of a Powerful Empire
Tibetans mainly live in Tibet Autonomous Region in western China.
The Tibetans once ruled the mountains of southwest China, and they had a vast empire from the 7th to the 9th centuries. Now, about 6 million live in China, and 3 million of them live in Tibet that was their former stronghold.
Physically, the Tibetans are unusual in that they are unusually well adapted to living at high altitude. Those living at high altitudes have 10 times more nitric oxide in their blood than most people. Many are devout Buddhists. The massive Potala Palace in Lhasa, their former capital, is a good place to learn about their culture and history.
9. Yao - Famed for Their Rice Terraces
The Red Yao women of Longsheng, Guilin have unusually long hair.
The Yao ethnic group has a population of over 2.6 million. They live mainly in Guangxi, Hunan, Yunnan, Guangdong, Guizhou and Jiangxi Provinces together with the Zhuang.
Ethnic traits: Most of the Yao people are farmers who live in small villages and towns that are distributed widely in mountainous areas. To see them at work and visit their villages, you can take a trip to Guilin to the Dazhai Village area to the see their beautiful Jinkeng Terraced Fields.
10. Naxi - Noted for the Unique Culture and Waterworks
The Naxi are a comparatively small group of people who mainly live in Yunnan Province. The city of Lijiang is where most of their 330,000 population live. The government designates the distinctive Mosuo people of the Lugu Lake area outside of Lijiang as Naxi as well. About 50,000 Mosuo live there.
Ethnic traits: The two groups are quite different. The Mosuo are noted for a heavily matriarchal social system. The Naxi are more cosmopolitan. They have their own distinctive writing system and literature. They were historically traders who built intricate waterworks for their towns exemplified in the Ancient Town of Lijiang.
Some Other Ethnic Groups in China
A Bai girl in traditional Bai clothes
We also have information about these 10 interesting ethnic groups in China:
Bai Minority: noted for business and cultural sophistication, mostly in Yunnan
Dai Minority: They live in tropical lowlands and are closely related to Thai people, mostly in Yunnan
Hani Minority: beautiful terraced rice paddies and quality tea, mostly in Yunnan
Kazak Minority: a Turkic pastoralist people and neighbors with the Uyghurs
Qiang Minority: a mountain people with mysterious origins and Central Asian architecture, mostly in Sichuan
Shui Minority: a coastal people who migrated inland and retain many aspects of a coastal lifestyle, mostly in Guizhou
Tujia Minority: The Tujia inhabit several rugged scenic areas such as Zhangjiajie.
Yi Minority: known historically for building the Nanzhao empire and now known for acrobatic dances, mostly in Yunnan
Buyi Minority: noted for their towns made of stone, mostly in Guizhou
Lisu Minority: noted for long festivals, dancing and native instruments in a wilderness area, mostly in Yunnan
See China's Minorities during a Tailor-Made China Tour
Your whole family can have a fascinating and memorable visit in an ethnic village.
If you want to explore China's ethnic villages. See our China's Festival Tours and our China Minority Tours of southwestern China and Tibet, or simply contact us for a tailor-made tour.
Shangri-La Exploration Tour - 8-Day Kunming, Dali, Lijiang, and Shangri-La Highlights Tour
Yunnan Ethnic Minorities Tour - 6-Day Kunming, Dali, and Lijiang Highlights Tour
Further Reading
The Guizhou Museum of Marriage Customs of Ethnic Minorities is the only museum in China that features marriage customs of ethnic minorities.
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List of ethnic groups in China - Wikipedia
List of ethnic groups in China - Wikipedia
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1Officially recognized groups
2Taiwanese aborigines
3Unlisted ethnic groups
4Hong Kong and Macau
5Gallery
6See also
7References
8Further reading
9External links
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List of ethnic groups in China
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the ethnic groups in historical China, see Ethnic groups in Chinese history.
Ethnolinguistic map of China
China's Autonomous Regions and its Designated Ethnic Minority
The Han people are the largest ethnic group in mainland China. In 2010, 91.51% of the population were classified as Han (~1.2 billion).[1] Besides the Han Chinese majority, 55 other ethnic (minority) groups are categorized in present-day China, numbering approximately 105 million people (8%), mostly concentrated in the bordering northwest, north, northeast, south and southwest but with some in central interior areas.
The major ethnic minorities in China are the Zhuang (19.6 million), Uyghurs (11 million), Hui (11.4 million), Miao (11 million), Manchu (10.4 million), Yi (9.8 million), Tujia (9.6 million), Tibetans (7 million), Mongols (6.3 million), Buyei (3.5 million), Dong (3.5 million), Yao (3.3 million), Bai (2 million), Koreans (1.7 million), Hani (1.7 million), Li (1.6 million), Kazakhs (1.5 million), and Dai (1.2 million).[2] At least 126,000 people from Canada, the United States, and Europe are living in mainland China.[3] In addition, there are a number of unrecognized ethnic groups which together comprise over 730,000 people.
Officially recognized groups[edit]
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Officially recognized ethnic groups receive or have received certain benefits over Han Chinese under the regional ethnic autonomy system, including affirmative action, exemptions from the one-child policy, designated seats in political organs and government support to preserve their culture. Ethnic minority autonomous areas receive additional state subsidies.[4][5] Languages of officially recognized minorities are used in official government documents.[6]
Soon after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, 39 ethnic groups were recognized by the first national census in 1954. This further increased to 54 by the second national census in 1964, with the Lhoba group added in 1965. The last change was the addition of the Jino people in 1979, bringing the number of recognized ethnic groups to the current 56. The following are the 56 ethnic groups (listed by population) officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.[7]
English Name
Standard Romanization
CodeA
Simplified Chinese
Mandarin Pinyin
2020 National Shares
2020 PopulationB
2010 PopulationB
2000 PopulationB
1990 PopulationB
Year of recognitionC
Han1
Han
HA
汉族
Hànzú
91.1098%
1,284,446,389
1,220,844,520
1,139,773,008
1,042,482,187
1954
Zhuang
Zhuang
ZH
壮族
Zhuàngzú
1.3801%
19,568,546
16,926,381
16,187,163
15,489,630
1954
Uyghur
Uygur
UG
维吾尔族
Wéiwú'ěrzú
0.8352%
11,774,538
10,069,346
8,405,416
7,214,431
1954
Hui2
Hui
HU
回族
Huízú
0.8070%
11,377,914
10,586,087
9,828,126
8,602,978
1954
Miao3
Miao
MH
苗族
Miáozú
0.7851%
11,067,929
9,426,007
8,945,538
7,398,035
1954
Manchu
Man
MA
满族
Mǎnzú
0.7394%
10,423,303
10,387,958
10,708,464
9,821,180
1954
Yi
Yi
YI
彝族
Yízú
0.6973%
9,830,327
8,714,393
7,765,858
6,572,173
1954
Tujia
Tujia
TJ
土家族
Tǔjiāzú
0.6801%
9,587,732
8,353,912
8,037,014
5,704,223
1964
Tibetan4
Zang
ZA
藏族
Zàngzú
0.5008%
7,060,731
6,282,187
5,422,954
4,593,330
1954
Mongol
Mongol
MG
蒙古族
Měnggǔzú
0.4461%
6,290,204
5,981,840
5,827,808
4,806,849
1954
Bouyei
Bouyei
BY
布依族
Bùyīzú
0.2537%
3,576,752
2,870,034
2,973,217
2,545,059
1954
Dong5
Dong
DO
侗族
Dòngzú
0.2480%
3,495,993
2,879,974
2,962,911
2,514,014
1954
Yao
Yao
YA
瑶族
Yáozú
0.2347%
3,309,341
2,796,003
2,638,878
2,134,013
1954
Bai
Bai
BA
白族
Báizú
0.1484%
2,091,543
1,933,510
1,861,895
1,594,827
1954
Hani6
Hani
HN
哈尼族
Hānízú
0.1229%
1,733,166
1,660,932
1,440,029
1,253,952
1954
Korean
Chosŏn
CS
朝鲜族
Cháoxiǎnzú
0.1207%
1,702,479
1,830,929
1,929,696
1,920,597
1954
Li
Li
LI
黎族
Lízú
0.1136%
1,602,104
1,463,064
1,248,022
1,110,900
1954
Kazakh
Kazak
KZ
哈萨克族
Hāsàkèzú
0.1108%
1,562,518
4,447,588
4,251,023
3,111,718
1954
Dai7
Dai
DA
傣族
Dǎizú
0.0943%
1,329,985
1,261,311
1,159,231
1,025,128
1954
Lisu
Lisu
LS
傈僳族
Lìsùzú
0.0541%
762,296
702,839
635,101
574,856
1954
She
She
SH
畲族
Shēzú
0.0529%
746,385
708,651
710,039
630,378
1964
Dongxiang
Dongxiang
DX
东乡族
Dōngxiāngzú
0.0550%
774,947
621,500
513,826
373,872
1954
Gelao
Gelao
GL
仡佬族
Gēlǎozú
0.0481%
677,521
550,746
579,744
437,997
1964
Lahu
Lahu
LH
拉祜族
Lāhùzú
0.0354%
499,167
485,966
453,765
411,476
1954
Sui
Sui
SU
水族
Shuǐzú
0.0352%
495,928
411,847
407,000
345,993
1954
Wa
Wa
WA
佤族
Wǎzú
0.0306%
430,997
429,709
396,709
351,974
1954
Nakhi8
Naxi
NX
纳西族
Nàxīzú
0.0230%
323,767
326,295
309,477
278,009
1954
Qiang
Qiang
QI
羌族
Qiāngzú
0.0222%
312,981
309,576
306,476
198,252
1954
Tu
Tu
TU
土族
Tǔzú
0.0200%
281,928
289,565
241,593
191,624
1954
Mulao9
Mulao
ML
仫佬族
Mùlǎozú
0.0197%
277,233
216,257
207,464
159,328
1964
Kyrgyz
Kirgiz
KG
柯尔克孜族
Kē'ěrkèzīzú
0.0145%
204,402
186,708
160,875
141,549
1954
Xibe
Xibe
XB
锡伯族
Xībózú
0.0136%
191,911
190,481
189,357
172,847
1954
Salar
Salar
SL
撒拉族
Sālāzú
0.0117%
165,159
130,607
104,521
87,697
1954
Jingpo10
Jingpo
JP
景颇族
Jǐngpōzú
0.0114%
160,471
147,828
132,158
119,209
1954
Daur
Daur
DU
达斡尔族
Dáwò'ěrzú
0.0094%
132,299
131,992
132,747
121,357
1964
Blang
Blang
BL
布朗族
Bùlǎngzú
0.0090%
127,345
119,639
91,891
82,280
1964
Maonan11
Maonan
MN
毛南族
Máonánzú
0.0088%
124,092
101,192
107,184
71,968
1964
Tajik12
Tajik
TA
塔吉克族
Tǎjíkèzú
0.0036%
50,896
51,069
41,056
33,538
1954
Pumi
Pumi
PM
普米族
Pǔmǐzú
0.0032%
45,012
42,861
33,628
29,657
1964
Achang
Achang
AC
阿昌族
Āchāngzú
0.0031%
43,775
39,555
33,954
27,708
1964
Nu
Nu
NU
怒族
Nùzú
0.0026%
36,575
37,523
28,770
27,123
1964
Evenki
Ewenki
EW
鄂温克族
Èwēnkèzú
0.0025%
34,617
30,875
30,545
26,315
1954
Vietnamese13
Gin
GI
京族
Jīngzú
0.0024%
33,112
28,199
22,584
18,915
1964
Jino
Jino
JN
基诺族
Jīnuòzú
0.0018%
26,025
23,143
20,899
18,021
1979
Bonan
Bonan
BO
保安族
Bǎo'ānzú
0.0017%
24,434
20,074
16,505
12,212
1954
De'ang14
Deang
DE
德昂族
Dé'ángzú
0.0016%
22,354
20,556
17,935
15,462
1964
Russian
Russ
RS
俄罗斯族
Éluósīzú
0.0011%
16,136
15,393
15,631
13,504
1954
Yugur
Yugur
YG
裕固族
Yùgùzú
0.0010%
14,706
14,378
13,747
12,297
1954
Uzbek
Uzbek
UZ
乌孜别克族
Wūzībiékèzú
0.0009%
12,742
10,569
12,423
14,502
1954
Monba
Monba
MB
门巴族
Ménbāzú
0.0008%
11,143
10,561
8,928
7,475
1964
Oroqen
Oroqen
OR
鄂伦春族
Èlúnchūnzú
0.0007%
9,168
8,659
8,216
6,965
1954
Derung
Derung
DR
独龙族
Dúlóngzú
0.0005%
7,310
6,930
7,431
5,816
1964
Hezhen15
Hezhen
HZ
赫哲族
Hèzhézú
0.0004%
5,373
5,354
4,664
4,245
1964
Lhoba
Lhoba
LB
珞巴族
Luòbāzú
0.0003%
4,237
3,682
2,970
2,312
1965
Tatars
Tatar
TT
塔塔尔族
Tǎtǎ'ěrzú
0.0003%
3,544
3,556
4,895
4,873
1954
Gaoshan16
Gaoshan
GS
高山族
Gāoshānzú
0.0002%
3,479
4,009
4,488
2,909
1954
Undistinguished
—
none
未识别民族
Wèi Shìbié Mínzú
0.0593%
836,488
640,101
734,438
749,341
—
Naturalized Citizen
—
none
外国人加入中国籍
Wàiguórén Jiārù Zhōngguójí
0.0012%
16,595
1,448
941
3,421
—
AGB 3304-91 "Names of ethnicities of China in romanization with codes";[8]
BThe population only includes mainland China;
CFor ethnic groups officially recognised in 1964 or earlier, this is the year of first inclusion in the national census, which were in 1954[9] and 1964;[10]
1Also included are the Chuanqing;
2Also includes Utsuls of Hainan, descended from Cham refugees;
3One subset of which is also known as Hmong and other include Hmu, Xong and A-Hmao. Some of the related languages and groups of peoples are not necessarily classified under the Miao umbrella, which makes this term somewhat vague;
4including Amdowa and Khampa, as well as roughly half of Pumi speakers, the remainder of whom are classified as a separate Pumi ethnicity;
5Also known as Kam;
6Also included are the Sangkong;
7This category includes several different Tai-speaking groups historically referred to as Bai-yi. In fact, the Dai nationality consists of speakers of varieties of Shan languages. For instance, the Tai Lue and Tai Nuea peoples are actually subgroups of the Shan people. Despite this, speakers of Bumang are also included in the Dai nationality;
8Also included are the Mosuo;
9Also included are the Qago (木佬人);
10Known as Kachin in Myanmar;
11Also included are the Then;
12They are not Tajik people but Pamiri people;
13The same group as Vietnamese or Kinh people in Sino-Vietnamese;
14Known as Palaung in Myanmar;
15The same group as Nanai on the Russian side of the border;
16A collective name for all Taiwanese aborigine groups in Taiwan. In fact, the numbers of Gaoshan in census covers only those who lives in mainland China (mainly in Fujian) and consists of Amis (autonym: Pangcah), Paiwan and Bunun peoples.[citation needed]
Taiwanese aborigines[edit]
Main article: Taiwanese indigenous peoples
The People's Republic of China government officially refers to all Taiwanese aborigines (Chinese: 原住民族; pinyin: Yuánzhùmínzú) as Gaoshan (Chinese: 高山族; pinyin: Gāoshānzú), whereas the Republic of China (Taiwan) recognizes 16 groups of Taiwanese aborigines.[11] The term Gaoshan has a different connotation in Taiwan than it does in mainland China.[clarification needed]
Unlisted ethnic groups[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: Unrecognized ethnic groups in China
Part of a poster in Beijing showing the 56 ethnic groups of China
The following ethnic groups living in China are not recognized by the Chinese government:
Äynu people – classified as Uyghurs
Altai people – classified as Mongols[12]
Fuyu Kyrgyz people – classified as Kyrgyz
Gejia people – classified as Miao
Bajia (八甲人; Bājiǎrén)
Deng people
Hu people – classified as Bulang
Khmu people – classified as Bulang
Kucong
Mảng people
Ili Turk people – classified as Uzbek
Sherpa people – classified as Tibetan
Tanka people, including Fuzhou Tanka
Tebbu people
Tuvans – classified as Mongols[13]
Waxiang people
Jewish people
Macanese people, mixed race Catholic Portuguese speakers who lived in Macau since 16th century of various ethnic origins
Utsuls – classified as Hui
During the Fifth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China held in 2000, 734,438 people on the mainland were recorded as belonging to "undistinguished ethnic groups"—of these, 97% resided in Guizhou, .[14]
Hong Kong and Macau[edit]
See also: Demographics of Hong Kong and Demographics of Macau
Hong Kong and Macau are special administrative regions within China. The governments of Hong Kong and Macau do not use the official PRC ethnic classification system, nor does the PRC's official classification system take ethnic groups in Hong Kong and Macau into account. Minority groups such as Western Europeans (mainly English and Portuguese), and Southern or Southeastern Asians (mainly Filipinos, Indians, Indonesians, Nepalese, and Pakistanis) live in Hong Kong.[15] Macau's main ethnic groups are of Chinese and Portuguese descent, but other ethnicities also live in the territory.[16]
Gallery[edit]
Han
Zhuang
Manchu
Hui
Miao
Uyghur
Tujia
Yi
Mongol
See also[edit]
China portal
Affirmative action in China
Demographics of China
Demographics of Taiwan
Local ethnic nationalism
Taiwanese people
Ethnic minorities in China
Han Chinese subgroups
Hua–Yi distinction
Languages of China
List of endangered languages in China
Kra–Dai ethnic groups in China
Taiwanese indigenous peoples
Unrecognized ethnic groups in China
Minzu (anthropology)
Zhonghua minzu
References[edit]
^ "Han Chinese proportion in China's population drops: census data". Xinhua News (English). 28 April 2011. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
^ "index". www.stats.gov.cn.
^ "Expats in China: Nationalities and in which cities they settle".
^ Jarmuth, Anna (2020-09-22). "Ethnic Minorities and the Fight against Poverty in China: The Case of Yunnan". Institute for Security and Development Policy. Retrieved 2023-10-19.
^ Lai, Hongyi. "China's Ethnic Policies and Challenges" (PDF).
^ "White Paper 1999: Ethnic Minorities Policy in China". un.china-mission.gov.cn. Retrieved 2023-10-19.
^ 胡鸿保; 张丽梅 (2009). 民族识别原则的变化与民族人口 [Changes in Ethnic Identification Principles and Ethnic Population]. Southwest University for Nationalities University Press (in Chinese) (4).
^ GB 3304-91 Names of nationalities of China in romanization with codes Archived 2009-11-01 at the Wayback Machine.
^ First National Population Census of the People's Republic of China
^ Second National Population Census of the People's Republic of China
^ "Gov't officially recognizes two more aboriginal people groups". China Post. CNA. 27 June 2014. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 13 December 2014.
^ Olson, James S. (1998). "Altai". An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. pp. 9–11. ISBN 0-313-28853-4.
^ Mongush, M. V. (1996). "Tuvans of Mongolia and China". International Journal of Central Asian Studies (1): 225–243.
^ 第五次人口普查数据(2000年). 表1—6. 省、自治区、直辖市分性别、民族的人口 ( Fifth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China (2000). Table 1-6: Population of provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities by ethnicity). (in Chinese)
^ Paul O'Connor (2018). "Ethnic Minorities and Ethnicity in Hong Kong". Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Hong Kong. Routledge. pp. 59–274. ISBN 9780367580605.
^ João de Pina Cabral. "THE 'ETHNIC' COMPOSITION OF MACAO". Cultural Bureau of Macau. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
Further reading[edit]
Olson, James S. (1998). An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-28853-4.
Schwars, Henry G. (1984). The Minorities of Northern China: A Survey.
External links[edit]
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"Chinese ethnic odyssey" - collection of articles from the People's Daily
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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Ethnicity and Minority Nationalities Since 1949
IntroductionGeneral OverviewsSingle-Authored VolumesEdited or Multiauthored VolumesReference Works, Text Material, and AnthologiesJournalsTheory of EthnicityEconomy and Law among Minority NationalitiesLanguage, Education, Culture among Ethnic MinoritiesParticular Minorities or Minority AreasTheories of Ethnicity Relevant to Specific Ethnic Groups or RegionsEconomy and TourismSociety and CultureBooks Combining Tibet and XinjiangTibet and the TibetansHistoriesEdited BooksBibliographiesBiographies and AutobiographiesEducation, Gender, ReligionProtest and Other TopicsXinjiang and the UighursHistories and OverviewsEducation, Culture, and Other Specific Topics
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Ethnicity and Minority Nationalities Since 1949
byColin MackerrasLAST REVIEWED: 08 June 2017LAST MODIFIED: 24 July 2018DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199920082-0012
IntroductionThis article covers works about ethnicity in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and minority nationalities since 1949 with an emphasis on the reform period since 1978. The Chinese state still follows Joseph Stalin’s definition of an ethnic group (Ch. minzu 民族), given in 1913, as “a historically constituted community of people, having a common territory, a common language, a common economic life and a common psychological makeup which expresses itself in a common culture” (Stalin, “Marxism and the National Question,” in Works, Vol. 2 [Moscow: Foreign Languages, 1953], p. 307). Under this definition, the Chinese state recognizes fifty-six ethnic groups in China—the majority Han and fifty-five minority nationalities (shaoshu minzu 少数民族, often also translated “ethnic minorities”). According to the 2010 census, which included only the mainland of China, not Hong Kong, Macao, or Taiwan, 8.49 percent of China’s population belonged to the fifty-five minorities, a total of 113,792,211 persons, while the Han were 91.51 percent. Although the minorities are thus only a small proportion of China’s total population, the territory they inhabit is about 60 percent of the mainland and includes most of the border areas, some of them extremely sensitive. For this reason, they are politically and strategically much more important than their numbers might suggest. Many of the minorities are quite similar to the Han in language and culture, but others are quite different both from the Han and from one another. Most speak Sino-Tibetan languages, which are thus related to Chinese, but others speak Altaic (including Turkic) languages, and a few speak languages belonging to other families. In terms of religion, the minorities are also very diverse, with the best-known internationally being Islam and the characteristic Buddhism of the Tibetans. As China has strengthened over the past decades, the issue of ethnic identity has become more important, while the Chinese state has insisted on its own territorial integrity and thus resisted all separatist movements with all the force at its command. The members of most minority nationalities are quite willing to integrate or even assimilate with the dominant Han and with the Chinese state. However, others have seen strong resistance movements; the outstanding examples are the Tibetans and the Uighurs, the latter being Muslims and Turkic. (This ethnonym is also spelled Uyghurs or Uygurs, but for consistency’s sake this article adopts the spelling “Uighurs” except in titles of works, in which case the original spelling is preserved.) Disturbances among these two ethnic groups have occurred periodically and, especially in the case of the Tibetans, they have created an international issue that bears not only on human rights but even on the status of Tibet.General OverviewsThe 1950s and 1960s saw the publication in China of numerous ethnographies and histories of ethnic minorities, almost all with the main focus on social and economic formations or pre-1949 history. Though based exclusively on the framework imposed by Joseph Stalin’s definition cited in the Introduction, the information they provided was extraordinarily rich and useful at a time when field research by Western scholars was all but impossible. There was also extensive work undertaken to identify the various ethnic minorities and their characteristics. Chinese ethnological scholarship was totally interrupted by the Cultural Revolution (from 1966 to 1976), but it became even more voluminous in the 1980s than it had been in the 1950s and 1960s, persisting into the 1990s and the 21st century. However, during the 1980s it became possible for non-Chinese scholars, especially anthropologists, not only to travel in the minority areas but also to carry out fieldwork there. Some of the literature deals with specific ethnic minorities, but there are also works considering some or all of the fifty-five recognized ethnic minorities as a collective whole. A very popular theme is the emergence of ethnic identity. Relations between ethnic minorities and the Han have changed greatly since reform, with ethnic identity and globalization pointing in opposite directions. Two ethnic groups that attract a substantial literature stemming from various factors, including strengthened ethnic identity and periodic disturbances aiming at independence or greater autonomy, are the Tibetans and the Uighurs, who, however, are also frequently considered in general works.
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Ethnic Minorities in China
The Mongols, Tibetans, Manchus, and Naxi
An essay on some of China's 56 ethnic minority groups. This essay provides a backdrop for understanding that China, like many places in the world, faces challenges about how to reconcile national borders with ethnic ones. The arguments surrounding these debates are very complex, with groups invoking history in different ways to legitimize their opposing stances.
China is a country of immense diversity in terrain, climate, and especially people. There are 56 officially recognized ethnic groups. The largest is the Han Chinese, numbering 900 million, who reside in every region of the country. The smallest group is the Hezhen, living in the far northeast, with fewer than 2,000 people. This essay introduces four groups-Mongols, Tibetans, the Manchus, and the Naxi--whose writings are in the Beijing National Library. It is important to note that China, like many places in the world, faces challenges about how to reconcile national borders with ethnic ones. Precisely when and how regions such as Mongolia and Tibet came to be part of China are points that are disputed by groups both within and outside of China. The arguments surrounding these debates are very complex, with groups invoking history in different ways to legitimize their opposing stances.
Mongols
Western images of Mongols often depict horse-riding nomads, living in yurts, or tents, and following their herds of sheep, horses, and cattle over the grassy plains of central Asia. Like the American cowboy, Mongols embody the pastoral image of free-spirited people living in harmony with their animals and the environment. There is a grain of truth to this stereotype. Some Mongol people make their living tending herds of animals and moving with the seasons, a practice known as nomadic pastoralism. However, this image does not capture the diversity found among Mongol people. There are sedentary farmers raising corn, wheat, oats, chickens, and pigs. Still other Mongol people combine aspects of nomadic pastoralism with sedentary agriculture. One family may divide the tasks among different members, with some moving to the steppes and tending the family herds, while others stay on the farm to raise crops. There are also Mongol doctors, lawyers, politicians, and professors. Some Mongols live in large cities, trading in stocks and bonds on international markets and designing Web pages. In short Mongols are as varied as any peoples in the world today.
There are three primary means of determining Mongol identity. They are history, language (written and spoken), and religion. Starting in 1206 C.E., led by the great Chingis Khan, Mongol armies spread out over Asia. By 1275, under Chinggis's grandson Khubilai Khan, the Mongols had established the largest land-based empire in the history of the world, stretching from Korea to southern China, through central Asia and what is now Russia. Mongol rule was established in Persia (today Iran), and, for a brief time, Mongol armies occupied parts of Eastern Europe, near what is now Poland and Hungary.
As this empire expanded from its core area in Mongolia, it stationed armies in various places throughout Asia. The descendants of those forces now reside as far south as Yunnan (in southwestern China), as far north as Lake Baikal in Russia (the Buriats), as far west as southwestern Russia (the Kalmyks), Afghanistan (the Moghols) and Xinjiang (the Oirats), and of course, in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region in China and Mongolia. Though these groups live thousands of miles apart, there is recognition of a common heritage going back to the thirteenth century. A common language also unites Mongols. All speak Mongolian, with minor linguistic differences, and use the same unique script. Written from top to bottom, left to right, the script was adapted in the thirteenth century from the Uighur script, when the expanding Mongol Empire needed a means to communicate. The People's Republic of Mongolia, what is now known as Mongolia, used the Cyrillic alphabet to write the Mongolian language while the country was under the influence of the Soviet Union. In recent times, however, attempts have been made to reintroduce the traditional script.
Religion is another unifying force for Mongol society. Shortly after conquering most of Asia in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Mongols were introduced to Buddhism, particularly Tibetan Buddhism. Monasteries were established to serve the religious needs of their communities, and to this day, Buddhist monasteries in Mongol communities continue to teach the holy scriptures by means of the Mongol script. For the 3.5 million Mongols living in China today, there is much in their culture with which to identify. History, language, and religion interact with other cultural practices, such as music and art, to form a rich tapestry.
Tibetans
Like Mongolia, Tibet was the center of a vast empire. Beginning in the seventh century, Tibetan armies moved north, east, and west from the area around the Yalu River in the region near present-day Lhasa. Within a few decades, they had conquered much of central Asia, including the important routes through Xinjiang used by China to trade with Western neighbors. In the eighth century the Tibetan Empire was the most feared political power in Asia. For a short period in 755, Tibetans even captured Chang'an, then the capital of China, chasing the Chinese emperor and his court from the city. Internal disputes eventually divided the Tibetan Empire, and the court's authority gave way to local leaders. However, there are lasting legacies of this imperial period. One is language. In modern China there are three dialect groups, all closely related to one another and descended from the language of the empire's armies. The first is Central Tibetan, spoken around Lhasa, in an area now called the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR). The second is Khams, spoken east of the TAR in Sichuan, Yunnan, and in some parts of Qinghai. The third dialect group is Amdo, spoken north of the TAR, in Qinghai, Sichuan, and Gansu provinces. Tibetan languages are also spoken in Nepal, Bhutan, and India. All of these linguistic varieties use the same written language, which is based on an alphabet invented in Tibet during the reign of Srong bstan Sgam po (627-650).
Another lasting legacy of imperial Tibet is Buddhism. The first Tibetan emperors invited Buddhist monks from India and China to teach the religion to courtiers and aristocrats. The emperors also sent learned men to India and China to gather Buddhist scriptures and translate them into Tibetan. The teachings of Buddhism took firm root, quickly permeating Tibetan society. Buddhism came to flourish in Tibet as it had nowhere else. One difference in the Buddhism of Tibet is the importance of the lama, or teacher, with whose assistance the disciple will reach spiritual enlightenment. Therefore, Tibetan Buddhism is sometimes referred to as Lamaism.
Monasteries play a key role in Tibetan society. As centers of religion, they not only minister to the spiritual needs of their lay communities but also preserve and propagate religious and scholarly traditions. In the case of Tibet, with a written history of over thirteen thousand years and thousands of religious texts, the scholarly tradition is of great significance.
In recent times Tibet's people and their culture have gained increasing attention as they wrestle with the problem of finding a political space in the rapidly changing modern world. There is concern over whether the nearly four million Tibetans living in China today will be able to hold onto their heritage and allow it to proliferate in the future.
The Manchus
The Manchus offer a cautionary example of the importance of language as a means of preserving a people's heritage. While around 4.2 million Manchus live in China today, it's estimated that only around 50 individuals still speak the language. The vast majority speak and write Chinese. With the near extinction of the Manchu language, a great deal of culture has been lost.
The Manchus have a proud history. In 1644 they overran the Ming dynasty, which had ruled China for nearly three hundred years. Manchu armies then gained control of present-day Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet. The Manchus established a dynasty, called the Qing, which ruled much like a Chinese dynasty, with an extensive military and civilian bureaucracy. However, their empire included lands that no Chinese dynasty had ever controlled. By the eighteenth century, the Qing dynasty was the largest, richest, and most powerful empire in Asia and, possibly, the world.
From the beginning there were signs that the relatively small group of Manchus who were now rulers of China would be greatly changed by the experience of governing such a vast land. Originally, they looked to shamans-individuals who had a special relationship with the natural world-for religious guidance. Through trances, shamans communed with spirits who provided them with powers to heal the sick, rid an area of evil spirits, or see the future. Over time this practice largely gave way to Buddhism, Daoism, and the other religious traditions. Similarly, Manchu language gradually lost its place. At the beginning of the Qing dynasty, Manchu was used for all written documents at court. The writing system was modified from the Mongolian alphabet to fit the needs of the Manchu language. Many of the earliest scribes for the Manchu rulers were, in fact, Mongolians hired for their ability to write.
Over time it became court policy that all documents should be written in both Manchu and Chinese. Eventually fewer Manchu learned to write their own language. The emperor Qianlong, who ruled from 1736 to 1796, repeatedly ordered his courtiers to learn Manchu, suggesting that many were using Chinese exclusively. By the dynasty's end, in 1911, even the emperor could not read or write the Manchu language and probably did not speak it either.
The Naxi
There are fewer than 300,000 Naxi people, most living in Yunnan province in China's southwest. Unlike the Mongols, Tibetans, and Manchus, the Naxi were never a political force of international importance. From the eleventh to thirteenth centuries, they were a regionally dominant people. However, when the Mongol armies arrived in 1253, the Naxi were quick to submit to their authority. From that time onward, they ruled southwest China on behalf of whatever imperial dynasty was in power in Beijing, from the Yuan dynasty, through the Ming and Qing dynasties.
Today the Naxi mostly occupy high mountain valleys and the foothills to the Himalayan plateau. Although it is a tropical region, the altitude makes the seasons generally mild. Most Naxi are farmers, growing grain and vegetables in the valleys. Some tend livestock, such as yaks, goats, and sheep, in the mountain grasslands. The most important urban center of Naxi culture is Lijiang, a mid-sized town that is home to businesspeople, doctors, and artists. The Naxi language is distantly related to the Tibetan language. Naxi religious leaders, called Dongba, have long used a unique form of picture writing to record the stories and myths that are central to their religious teachings. This "script" is known as Dongba writing. A system of Roman letters has recently been developed for writing the Naxi language, providing a more efficient method. However, the Dongba script continues to be a powerful symbol of Naxi ethnicity. (See the Annals of Creation in Dongba Script at the beginning of this section.)
Author: Keith Dede.
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China's ethnic policy and governance
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Updated: 2023-12-15 01:00
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Due to years of disinformation campaign by the United States and other Western countries, there are many misunderstandings and misperceptions about China among people in the West. But the fact is, when it comes to managing ethnic affairs, and protecting the languages, cultures, and customs of ethnic minorities, China has done a better job than the US and a large number of other Western countries. It is time to set the record straight and people learn the truth.
Here are some basic facts: China is a multi-ethnic country with more than 1.4 billion people; there are 56 ethnic groups in the large family of the Chinese nation; China practices a system of regional ethnic autonomy; and the languages and cultures of ethnic minorities in China are well protected.
With that in mind, there are four key words to help one fully grasp China’s ethnic policy:
First, equality. The 56 ethnic groups in China are all equal regardless of their size, and are entitled to participate in the governance of state affairs. In the early days of the People’s Republic, the government took the initiative to identify all ethnic minorities. Any minority group, even if its population was slightly over 1,000 people, was recognised as an ethnicity and accorded preferential arrangements. Today, no matter how small an ethnic group is, it has at least one representative in the National People's Congress, taking part in the exercise of the highest power of the country.
On any RMB banknote, one can see characters of Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur and Zhuang languages, apart from mandarin. Ethnic minority people can have more children and pay less taxes, and are provided with more opportunities to get training and promotion in government institutions.
Second, autonomy. In areas with sizable ethnic minority populations, regional autonomy is practiced, with autonomous organs exercising the power of self-government, and ethnic minority groups independently administering affairs in their groups. In China, there are five provincial-level ethnic autonomous regions including Xinjiang, Xizang, Inner Mongolia, Guangxi, and Ningxia, as well as 30 ethnic autonomous prefectures and 120 ethnic autonomous counties.
Third, development. China is promoting modernisation that features common prosperity for all, and this means that no ethnic group will be left behind. The Chinese government has made great efforts to develop the western regions of the country and taken active actions to revitalise border areas and enrich local residents’ lives. Ethnic minority areas have benefited tremendously from preferential resources and support from the government.
For example, for more than 30 years, government departments and other localities across the country have been providing paired-up assistance to Xinjiang and Xizang. Over the past 60 plus years since the establishment of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Uyghur population has increased from 2.2 million to around 12 million, and the average life expectancy there has grown from 30 to 74.7 years. Since Xizang's peaceful liberation and especially after its democratic reform, the ethnic population there has increased from 1 million to more than 3 million, and the average life expectancy in Xizang has grown from 35 to 72 years.
Fourth, unity. China's 55 ethnic minorities have a combined population of 125 million. China has been a unified multi-ethnic country as a result of multiple rounds of great ethnic integration in history, and this has contributed enormously to the uninterrupted development of the Chinese civilisation spanning thousands of years. Together, ethnic groups in China have long become a community with common interests and a shared future.
We respect and protect the customs, languages, and religious beliefs of ethnic minorities. A total of 28 written languages and 72 spoken languages are used by the country's 55 ethnic minorities. There are 144,000 registered religious activity sites in China, including more than 35,000 mosques, 33,500 Buddhist temples, and about 60,000 Christian churches and gathering venues. While working to preserve ethnic diversity, we are also striving to build a stronger Chinese national and cultural identity among all ethnic groups.
All in all, China's ethnic policy is rooted in the country’s unique history and culture, and has its own development logic. Through unremitting efforts, China has found the right path to manage ethnic issues with Chinese characteristics and in line with its own national conditions. We are ready to strengthen exchanges with other countries on ethnic policy and governance, and learn from each other, for the betterment of all, and for the progress of human civilisation.
By Zheng Zeguang, Chinese Ambassador to the United Kingdom.
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五、重视保障特定群体权利V. Protecting the Rights of Special Groups
新中国成立70年来,中国结合国情采取有针对性的措施,切实保障少数民族、妇女、儿童、老年人和残疾人的合法权益,使他们能以平等的地位和均等的机会充分参与社会生活,共享物质文明和精神文明成果。Over the 70 years since the founding of the PRC, China has, based on its conditions, adopted targeted measures to effectively protect the legitimate rights and interests of ethnic minority groups, women, children, the elderly, and persons with disabilities, ensuring their equal status and giving them the equal opportunity to participate in social life and enjoy the fruits of the country’s material and cultural progress.
有效保障少数民族参与国家事务管理的权利。55个少数民族均有本民族的全国人大代表和全国政协委员,十三届全国人大代表中,少数民族代表438名,占14.7%。近年来全国公务员考试录用少数民族考生的比例保持在13%以上,高于少数民族人口占全国人口8.49%的比例。各民族自治地方依法享有广泛的自治权,包括政治、经济、教育、科学、文化、卫生等各项事业的自主管理权。民族自治地方的人民代表大会除享有地方国家权力机关的权力外,还有权依照当地民族的政治、经济和文化特点,制定自治条例和单行条例。155个民族自治地方的人民代表大会常务委员会中,均有实行区域自治民族的公民担任主任或者副主任;民族自治地方政府的主席、州长、县长或旗长,均由实行区域自治民族的公民担任。China effectively guarantees ethnic minority rights in administering state affairs. All 55 ethnic minority groups have deputies at the NPC and members in the CPPCC National Committee. The 13th NPC has 438 deputies from ethnic minority groups, accounting for 14.7 percent of the total number of deputies. In recent years, among the candidates passing the national civil service admission examination, ethnic minority candidates made up more than 13 percent, higher than the ethnic minority population ratio in the country (8.49 percent). The ethnic autonomous areas enjoy the right of autonomy in a wide range of fields as prescribed by law: politics, economy, education, science and technology, culture and health. In addition to the powers assigned to local authorities, the people’s congresses of ethnic autonomous areas also have the power to enact regulations on the exercise of autonomy and other separate regulations in the light of the political, economic and cultural characteristics of the ethnic group or ethnic groups in the areas concerned. The standing committees of all the people’s congresses in the 155 ethnic autonomous areas have members of ethnic groups exercising regional autonomy acting as director or deputy director. The chairpersons of autonomous regions, governors of autonomous prefectures, and heads of autonomous counties are all citizens from the ethnic groups exercising regional autonomy of the said areas.
少数民族和民族地区经济社会实现跨越式发展。70年来,国家把支持少数民族和民族地区加快经济社会发展作为国家发展建设的重要内容,通过实施西部大开发、兴边富民行动、扶持人口较少民族、少数民族特色村镇保护与发展、对口支援以及制定少数民族事业专项规划等战略举措,加大投入力度,坚决打赢民族地区脱贫攻坚战,有力地促进了少数民族和民族地区经济社会发展。2018年,内蒙古、广西、西藏、宁夏、新疆5个自治区和云南、贵州、青海3个省的地区生产总值达90576亿元,同比增长7.2%,高于全国0.6个百分点;贫困人口减少到603万,贫困发生率下降到4.0%。民族地区基础设施、公共服务和百姓生活日新月异。The ethnic minorities and ethnic minority areas have leapfrogged in social and economic development. Over the last 70 years, the state has treated the social and economic development of ethnic minorities and ethnic minority areas as an important element of national development. Through a series of strategic measures such as large-scale development of western China, actions to enrich border areas and their residents, efforts to develop smaller ethnic groups, efforts to preserve and promote ethnic minority style villages and towns, paired-up assistance, and special planning for ethnic minority undertakings, the Chinese government has increased its investment in the fight against poverty in ethnic minority areas, which has given a significant boost to local social and economic development. The total GDP of the five autonomous regions of Inner Mongolia, Guangxi, Tibet, Ningxia and Xinjiang, and the three provinces of Yunnan, Guizhou and Qinghai where there are a large number of ethnic minorities reached RMB9.06 trillion in 2018, an increase of 7.2 percent over 2017, which was 0.6 percentage point higher than the national average. The impoverished population in these regions dropped to 6.03 million, with the incidence of poverty reduced to 4 percent. Infrastructure, public services, and living conditions in ethnic minority areas are seeing rapid progress.
少数民族和民族地区教育事业快速发展。中国通过发展各级各类民族学校,举办内地预科班、民族班,对少数民族考生升学予以照顾,在广大农牧区推行寄宿制教育,着力办好民族地区高等教育等举措,促进教育公平,保障少数民族受教育权利。目前,民族地区已全面普及从小学到初中9年义务教育,西藏自治区、新疆维吾尔自治区的南疆地区等实现了从学前到高中阶段15年免费教育。2018年,新疆维吾尔自治区学前三年毛入园率已达到96.86%,小学净入学率达到99.94%。Education for ethnic minorities and in ethnic minority areas has developed rapidly. China has adopted a series of measures to improve educational equality and ensure ethnic minorities’ right to education. These measures include: opening schools for students from ethnic minority groups, opening preparatory courses and special classes for ethnic minorities at colleges and schools in other provinces and municipalities, giving preferential treatment to students from ethnic minority groups when they take exams to enter higher levels of education, running residential schools in farming and pastoral areas, and prioritizing ethnic minority areas in higher education development. Nine-year compulsory education (elementary and junior high schools) is universal in ethnic minority areas. In Tibet Autonomous Region and south Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, students are exempt from charges for education for a total of 15 years from preschool to senior high school. In Xinjiang in 2018, the gross preschool education enrolment rate reached 96.86 percent and the net primary education enrolment rate was 99.94 percent.
少数民族使用和发展本民族语言文字的自由得到保障。在中国,除回族和满族通用汉语文外,其他53个少数民族都有本民族语言,有22个少数民族共使用28种文字。国家依法保障少数民族语言文字在行政司法、新闻出版、广播影视、文化教育等各领域的合法使用。建设中国少数民族濒危语言数据库,设立并实施“中国语言资源保护工程”。截至2019年3月,民族自治地方共设置广播电台、电视台、广播电视台等播出机构714个。全国各级播出机构共开办民族语电视频道46套,民族语广播56套。新疆维吾尔自治区使用汉、维吾尔、哈萨克、柯尔克孜、蒙古、锡伯6种语言文字出版报纸、图书、音像制品和电子出版物,使用多语言、多文种播送电视和广播节目等。国家在民族地区实施双语教育,基本建立起从学前到高中阶段的双语教育体系。截至2018年,少数民族双语教育的中小学共6521所,接受双语教育的在校生309.3万人,双语教育的专任教师20.6万人。The freedom of ethnic minorities to use and develop their own spoken and written languages is fully protected. In China, with the exception of the Hui and Manchu peoples who generally use Han Chinese, the other 53 ethnic minorities have their own spoken languages, and 22 groups use a total of 28 written scripts. The state protects by law the legitimate use of the spoken and written languages of ethnic minorities in the areas of administration and judicature, press and publishing, radio, film and television, and culture and education. It has established a database for the endangered languages of ethnic minority groups, and initiated the Program for Protecting China’s Language Resources. As of March 2019, there were 714 radio and television stations in ethnic autonomous areas. The broadcasting stations across the country run 46 television channels and 56 radio programs in ethnic minority languages. The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region publishes newspapers, books, audios, videos, and electronic publications in Han Chinese, Uygur, Kazakh, Kyrghyz, Mongolian and Xibo languages, and uses various spoken and written languages in radio and television programs. The state provides bilingual education in ethnic minority areas, forming a basic bilingual education system that extends from preschool to senior high school. In 2018, there were 6,521 primary and middle schools catering to ethnic minority students in China, giving courses in both Han Chinese and ethnic minority languages, with 206,000 full-time teachers teaching such courses to 3.09 million students.
少数民族文化遗产、文物古迹得到有效保护。少数民族传统文化是中华文化的重要组成部分,是中国各族人民的共同精神财富。中国政府制定相关法律,设立专门机构,加大资金投入,推动少数民族文化传承发展。拉萨布达拉宫历史建筑群、丽江古城、元上都遗址、红河哈尼梯田文化景观、土司遗址等被列入联合国教科文组织《世界遗产名录》。中国列入联合国教科文组织非物质文化遗产名录(名册)的项目中有21项与少数民族相关;中国前四批共计1372项国家级非物质文化遗产名录中,与少数民族相关的有492项,占36%;在五批3068名国家级非物质文化遗产项目代表性传承人中,少数民族传承人有862名,约占28%;设立21个国家级文化生态保护实验区,其中有11个位于民族地区;25个省(自治区、直辖市)已建立民族古籍整理与研究机构。截至2018年,抢救、整理的散藏民间的少数民族古籍约百万种(不含馆藏及寺院藏书),包括很多珍贵的孤本和善本。组织实施《中国少数民族古籍总目提要》编纂工程,共收书目约30万种。Cultural heritage and relics of ethnic minorities are effectively protected. Traditional ethnic minority cultures are important components of Chinese culture, and the common cultural wealth of the whole nation. The Chinese government has promulgated laws, established specialized government bodies, and increased spending to inherit, pass on, and develop the cultures of ethnic minority groups. The Historic Ensemble of the Potala Palace of Lhasa, Old Town of Lijiang, Site of Xanadu, Cultural Landscape of Honghe Hani Rice Terraces, and Tusi Sites are all included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Of all the cultural items from China included in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List, 21 are related to ethnic minorities. At national level, 492 (36 percent) of the 1,372 cultural items included to date in China’s intangible cultural heritage list are related to ethnic minorities. Of the 3,068 representative trustees of China’s intangible cultural heritage, 862 (28 percent) are from ethnic minority groups. China has set up 21 national-level cultural preservation experimental areas, 11 of which are located in ethnic minority areas. Twenty-five provinces and equivalent administrative units have institutions that catalogue and study ancient classics and recordings of ethnic minorities. By 2018, about one million privately-held ethnic minority ancient classics and recordings (excluding books collected in museums and temples), including many rare editions, some of which only had a single extant copy, had been rescued and catalogued. China has launched the compilation of Collection of Ancient Classics and Recordings of Chinese Ethnic Minorities, including about 300,000 books.
少数民族宗教信仰自由得到保障。少数民族正常的宗教活动和宗教信仰依法受到保护,正常宗教需求得到满足。以多种语言文字翻译出版发行伊斯兰教、佛教、基督教等宗教典籍。西藏自治区有藏传佛教活动场所1787处,住寺僧尼4.6万多人。颁布《藏传佛教活佛转世管理办法》,活佛转世制度作为藏传佛教所特有的信仰和传承方式,得到国家和西藏自治区各级政府的尊重。西藏自治区现有活佛358名,其中91位新转世活佛按历史定制和宗教仪轨得到批准认定。不断完善藏传佛教僧人学经制度,国家颁布了《藏传佛教学衔授予办法(试行)》,截至2018年,西藏自治区已有117名学经僧人获得了格西“拉让巴”学位,68名僧人获得了中国藏语系高级佛学院“拓然巴”高级学衔。新疆维吾尔自治区有清真寺、教堂、寺院、道观等宗教活动场所2.48万座,其中清真寺有2.44万多座,教职人员2.93万人,学生可在伊斯兰教经学院接受本科教育,《古兰经》《布哈里圣训实录精华》等出版发行达176万余册。实行有组织、有计划的朝觐政策,加强服务保障,确保朝觐活动安全有序。Religious freedoms of ethnic minority groups are protected. Normal religious activities and religious beliefs of ethnic minorities are protected by law, and their normal religious needs are satisfied. China has published translations of the religious classics of Islam, Buddhism, Christianity and other religions in multiple languages. Tibet Autonomous Region has 1,787 venues for practicing Tibetan Buddhism, and over 46,000 resident monks and nuns. The state has issued the Measures on the Management of the Reincarnation of Living Buddhas of Tibetan Buddhism. The Living Buddha reincarnation is a succession system unique to Tibetan Buddhism, and is respected by the state and governments at different levels of the autonomous region. Tibet now has 358 Living Buddhas, 91 of whom have been approved and confirmed through historical conventions and traditional religious rituals. The system whereby Tibetan Buddhist monks study sutras has been improved. The state has issued the Measures on the Conferment of Academic Titles in Tibetan Buddhism (Trial). By 2018 a total of 117 monks from Tibet had received senior academic titles in Lhasa and 68 from the High-level Tibetan Buddhism College of China, Beijing. Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region has 24,800 venues for practicing religious activities, including 24,400 mosques, and 29,300 clerical personnel. Students can receive undergraduate education in Xinjiang Islamic Institute. More than 1.76 million copies of the Quran and Selections from Sahih of al-Buhari have been distributed. The hajj is well planned, organized and conducted to ensure a safe and orderly pilgrimage.
妇女儿童保护力度持续加强。妇女权益保障法、未成年人保护法奠定了保障妇女儿童权益的法律基础。中国政府先后制定实施了三个中国妇女发展纲要和三个中国儿童发展纲要,积极倡导并切实实现男女平等,加强儿童权利保护。不断加大女职工劳动就业、劳动保护、生育保障等权益的保护力度。有力惩处性侵、虐待未成年人、拐卖妇女儿童等犯罪行为,推动落实性违法犯罪人员从业禁止、校园性侵强制报告等制度。颁布实施反家庭暴力法,通过强制报告、公安告诫、人身安全保护令、紧急庇护等制度的实施,保障包括妇女在内的家庭成员的合法权益。维护校园安全,整治校园暴力和学生欺凌行为。强化留守儿童父母或受委托监护人的监护主体责任,严厉打击侵害农村留守儿童的违法犯罪活动。充分运用互联网等先进科技手段解救被拐卖儿童,建立打拐DNA信息库,推出公安部儿童失踪信息紧急发布平台,建立失踪儿童快速救助联动机制。The protection of women and children is improving. The Law on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests and the Law on the Protection of Minors lay the legal foundations in this area. The Chinese government has enacted three guidelines on women’s development and three on children’s development, advocating and ensuring gender equality and strengthening the protection of children’s rights. It works harder to protect the rights and interests of women employees, such as the right to work and to safety at work, and maternity benefits. It forcefully punishes sexual assaults on and maltreatment of minors, and trafficking of women and children. It promotes mechanisms preventing sexual criminals from engaging in restricted occupations, and compulsory reporting of campus sexual assaults. The state has promulgated the Anti-Domestic Violence Law, which protects the legal rights and interests of woman and other family members through compulsory reporting, admonition from public security organs, personal protection order, emergency protection and other measures. The government makes every effort to ensure school safety, punishing school violence and bullying. It intensifies supervision over the duties of the parents or other entrusted guardians of left-behind children whose parents work in other places and takes strict action on any crimes against this group of children. China makes full use of advanced technologies like the internet to rescue abducted children. It has established a DNA bank for abducted children, set up a missing children information release platform managed by the Ministry of Public Security, and activated a joint urgent rescue mechanism for missing children.
妇女儿童健康权益保障水平不断提高。新中国成立前,孕产妇死亡率高达1500/10万,婴儿死亡率高达200‰,妇女的平均预期寿命仅有36.7岁。新中国成立后,妇女儿童健康水平不断提高,2015年妇女平均预期寿命达79.43岁;2018年孕产妇死亡率下降到18.3/10万,婴儿死亡率下降到6.1‰。2012年起,实施贫困地区儿童营养改善项目,改善贫困地区儿童营养健康状况,截至2018年,项目覆盖21个省(自治区、直辖市)14个国家集中连片特殊困难地区715个贫困县,共有722万儿童受益。实施妇女宫颈癌和乳腺癌免费检查项目,将宫颈癌和乳腺癌纳入国家大病救治范围,截至2018年,累计开展宫颈癌免费检查近1亿人次,乳腺癌免费检查超过3000万人次。按照每人救助1万元的标准,累计发放中央专项彩票公益金和筹集的社会资金13亿多元,救助贫困患病妇女13.22万名。增加农村和边远地区妇幼卫生经费投入,实施农村孕产妇住院分娩补助项目,累计补助7400余万人。实施“母亲水窖”供水工程和“母亲健康快车”医疗卫生健康项目,着力解决西部干旱地区妇女安全饮水及贫困地区妇女儿童健康服务等问题。The protection of women and children’s right to health is improving. Before the founding of the PRC in 1949, the maternal and perinatal mortality rate was over 1,500 per 100,000, the infant mortality rate was 200 per 1,000, and the anticipated life expectancy of women was only 36.7 years. After 1949, the situation improved considerably. The anticipated life expectancy of women in 2015 rose to 79.43 years. In 2018 the maternal and perinatal mortality rate dropped to 18.3 per 100,000, and the infant mortality rate fell to 6.1 per 1,000. Nutritional improvement projects for children in impoverished areas were launched in 2012, benefiting 7.22 million children from 715 impoverished counties in 14 national contiguous impoverished regions of 21 provinces and equivalent administrative units. The government has launched a program of free cervical and breast cancer checkups for women, and brought the two into the scope of national subsidies for serious illnesses. By 2018 China had provided free cervical cancer checkups for 100 million and free breast cancer checkups for 30 million, and subsidized 132,200 impoverished rural women with diseases using over RMB1.3 billion collected through public welfare lotteries and social funds, to the sum of RMB10,000 each person. It has increased the investment for health care of women and children in rural, remote or border areas, and has subsidized more than 74 million rural women for their expenses of hospitalization during childbirth. The government has initiated the “Water Cellar for Mothers” program to provide reliable sources of drinking water for people, especially women, in the western regions of China, and the “Health Express for Mothers” program to provide medical and health services to the women and children in impoverished areas.
切实保障妇女参与公共事务管理和经济社会发展的权利。保障妇女参政议政权,十三届全国人大代表中有742名女性,占比24.9%,比1954年第一届全国人大女性代表占比提高12.9个百分点;十三届全国政协委员中有440名女性,占比20.4%,比1949年第一届全国政协女性委员占比提高14.3个百分点。20世纪90年代以来,历次党代会报告都明确要求重视培养选拔女干部。1950年全国干部队伍中女干部人数为6.5万人;2018年全国公务员中女干部人数为192.8万人,占比26.8%。Women’s rights to participation in the administration of public affairs and social and economic development are protected. Women are guaranteed the right to participate in the administration and deliberation of state affairs. The 13th NPC has 742 female deputies, accounting for 24.9 percent of the total, 12.9 percentage points higher than the figure for the First NPC in 1954. And the 13th CPPCC National Committee has 440 female members, making up 20.4 percent of the total, 14.3 percentage points higher than that for the First CPPCC National Committee in 1949. Since the 1990s, every CPC National Congress has attached importance to training and selecting female officials. The number of female civil servants was 65,000 in 1950; this figure had increased to 1.93 million, or 26.8 percent of all civil servants, by 2018.
老年人权益保障机制逐步健全。中国发展老龄事业,在全社会弘扬中华民族敬老、养老、助老的美德。截至2018年,中国60周岁及以上老年人口24949万人,占总人口的17.9%。制定并修订老年人权益保障法,建立养老法规政策体系。养老服务逐步从以机构集中照料为主,拓展到以居家为基础、社区为依托、机构为补充、医养相结合的养老服务体系建设和以家庭养老支持、互助养老为新突破点的融合发展。全国各类养老服务机构和设施从1978年的7000个增长到2019年3月的16.81万个,各类养老服务床位合计732万张。2018年,2972.3万老年人享受高龄补贴,74.8万老年人享受护理补贴,521.7万老年人享受养老服务补贴,3.0万老年人享受其他老龄补贴。The mechanism for protecting the rights and interests of the elderly is improving. China works to ensure the interests of the elderly, and advocates the virtues of respecting, providing for and assisting the elderly. In 2018, some 249 million Chinese were aged 60 or above, accounting for 17.9 percent of the total population. China formulated and amended the Law on the Protection of the Rights and Interests of the Elderly, forming a legal and policy framework for old-age care.Many of China’s elderly were cared for in nursing homes previously. Now, a new system for the elderly is taking shape, where the elderly are provided with home care, taken care of by community and supported by social services, featuring a combination of nursing at home and mutual help. In March 2019, China had 168,100 institutions and facilities with 7.32 million beds to provide old-age services, in contrast with just 7,000 in 1978. In 2018, 29.72 million senior citizens received advanced age subsidies, 748,000 nursing subsidies, 5.2 million old-age service subsidies, and 30,000 other old-age subsidies.
残疾人社会保障体系不断完善。全面建立困难残疾人生活补贴和重度残疾人护理补贴制度,2018年,受益残疾人超过2100万人次。截至2018年,2561.2万城乡残疾人参加城乡社会养老保险,1024.4万残疾人领取养老金,924.8万残疾人享受城乡最低生活保障;595.2万重度残疾人中有576万人得到政府参保补助,代缴养老保险费比例达到96.8%;另有298.4万非重度残疾人享受全额或部分代缴养老保险费的优惠政策。The social security system for persons with disabilities is improving. China has established a subsidy system to provide for the living expenses of disabled persons in need and to pay the nursing costs of persons with severe disabilities. In 2018, this system benefitted over 21 million. A total of 25.61 million persons with disabilities were covered in old-age insurance schemes in both urban and rural areas, with 10.24 million receiving old-age pensions, and 9.25 million people with disabilities received urban or rural minimum living subsidies. And 5.76 million (96.8 percent) out of the 5.95 million people with severe disabilities received insurance subsidies from the government, which paid for their premiums. The government also paid fully or partly for premiums for another 2.98 million people with mild or moderate disabilities.
残疾人康复服务普惠可及。全面开展残疾预防,不断加强康复服务,努力实现残疾人“人人享有康复服务”的目标。实施《残疾预防和残疾人康复条例》,残疾人康复机构从无到有,专业队伍逐渐壮大,服务能力日益提高。截至2018年,已竣工的省、市、县三级康复设施914个,总建筑面积344.9万平方米;残疾人专业康复服务机构9036个,在岗人员25万人,2750个县(市、区)开展社区康复服务。建立残疾儿童康复救助制度。2018年,残疾人康复服务覆盖率达到79.8%,1074.7万残疾儿童及持证残疾人得到基本康复服务。Rehabilitation is universally available to persons with disabilities. China makes concerted efforts in preventing disability, and works hard to improve rehabilitation services, in pursuit of the goal that “everyone in need has access to rehabilitation services”. The government has enacted the Regulations on the Disability Prevention and Rehabilitation of Persons with Disabilities, built up rehabilitation centers and fostered professionals capable of delivering consistent quality services. In 2018, there were 914 rehabilitation facilities at the provincial, city and county levels, and 9,036 rehabilitation service centers for persons with disabilities employed a team of 250,000 workers, and community rehabilitation services were provided in 2,750 counties (cities or districts). An assistance mechanism for providing rehabilitation services to children with disabilities has been established. In 2018, 79.8 percent of persons with disabilities were covered by rehabilitation services. Some 10.75 million disabled children and persons with certified disabilities received basic rehabilitation services.
促进残疾人工作权利实现。建立专门的残疾人就业服务机构,截至2018年,共有残疾人就业服务机构2787家,工作人员1.5万人。实施残疾人职业技能提升计划,建立了500家国家级残疾人职业培训基地,350家省级残疾人职业培训基地,2018年城乡新增残疾人实名制培训49.4万人。近年来,残疾人就业总体规模与结构趋于稳定,新增残疾人就业人数每年保持在30万人以上。2018年,城乡持证残疾人新增就业36.7万人,其中,城镇新增就业11.8万人,农村新增就业24.9万人。截至2018年,城乡持证残疾人就业人数达到948.4万人。The right to employment of persons with disabilities is guaranteed. China has established offices to serve persons with disabilities seeking employment. In 2018, there were 2,787 such offices with a staff of 15,000. The government has launched a program on employment skills training for persons with disabilities, setting up 500 national-level and 350 provincial-level vocational training bases. In 2018, another 494,000 persons with disabilities took part in training sessions. In recent years the number and the profile of disabled persons in employment have remained stable, with over 300,000 entering the workforce each year. In 2018, 367,000 persons with certified disabilities found jobs, of whom 118,000 were from urban areas and 249,000 from rural areas. That year, 9.48 million persons with certified disabilities were employed in urban and rural areas.
大力支持无障碍环境建设与辅助器具服务。实施《无障碍环境建设条例》,开展无障碍建设的市、县达到1702个,村(社区)综合服务设施中已有75%的出入口、40%的服务柜台、30%的厕所进行了无障碍建设和改造。2016年至2018年,共有298.6万户残疾人家庭得到无障碍改造。推进信息无障碍建设,截至2018年,500多家政府单位完成了信息无障碍公共服务平台建设,3万多个政务和公共服务网站实现了无障碍服务。各地相继制定辅助器具补贴办法,对购买辅助器具和提供适配服务给予补贴。2018年,有319.1万残疾人获得盲杖、助视器、假肢等各类辅具适配服务。不断放宽残疾人申领驾驶证条件,已有27.9万肢体、听力等残障人员申领驾驶证,残疾人个人行动和社会参与能力得到提升。China gives strong support to creating an accessible environment and providing assistive appliances. The Chinese government enacted the Regulations on the Building of an Accessible Environment in 2012. To this end, 1,702 cities and counties are making efforts to improve accessibility and remove barriers, and among comprehensive service facilities in villages or communities across the country, 75 percent of entrances and exits, 40 percent of service counters, and 30 percent of restrooms have been equipped or upgraded for accessibility. Between 2016 and 2018, the government helped almost 3 million families with disabled members adapt their homes. The government is also promoting information accessibility. By 2018, over 500 government departments had built accessible public service platforms, and more than 30,000 websites on government affairs and public services had removed barriers for persons with disabilities. Local governments have formulated subsidy measures and subsidized those who purchase or supply assistive appliances and adaption services. In 2018, 3.19 million persons with disabilities benefited from adaption services for assistive devices such as white canes, visual aids and artificial limbs. The government has relaxed the restrictions preventing persons with disabilities from applying for a driving license, and 279,000 people with physical or hearing disabilities have gained driving licenses, which grants them further mobility and improves their ability to participate in social life.
六、不断加强人权法治保障VI. Strengthening the Rule of Law for Human Rights
新中国创立了社会主义法治,以法治保障人权。70年来,中国构建起较为完备的人权法律保障体系,坚持依法治国、依法执政、依法行政共同推进,坚持法治国家、法治政府、法治社会一体建设,实现科学立法、严格执法、公正司法、全民守法,不断促进社会公平正义。After the founding of the PRC, socialist rule of law was established in China to protect human rights by law. Over the past 70 years, China has established a relatively complete legal system to protect human rights. It upholds law-based governance, law-based exercise of power, and law-based government administration, and adopts a holistic approach to promote the rule of law across the nation, in government, and throughout society. To promote social fairness and justice, it has endeavored to ensure that a well-conceived approach is taken to legislation, that the law is strictly enforced, that justice is impartially administered, and that the law is observed by everyone.
建设有限政府、责任政府、服务政府。依法确定行政权力界限,确立法无授权不可为的原则,实施权力清单、责任清单制度,禁止法外设权、违法用权。持续深化“放管服”改革,加快转变政府职能,努力降低群众和企业与政府打交道的成本。建立完善严格的行政执法程序,确立行政裁量权基准制度,统一执法标准,压缩自由裁量空间,维护行政相对人的合法权益。深化执法公开,拓展公开范围,整合公开载体,强化网上政务公开,方便群众获取信息。25个省(自治区、直辖市)建立省级执法公开平台,实现了执法办案进度和结果的信息查询服务;22个省(自治区、直辖市)实现了行政处罚决定文书网上公开;17个省(自治区、直辖市)实现了行政复议决定文书网上公开。强化执法监督,建立完善以执法考评为主要内容的绩效考核体系,深化执法信息化建设,实现案件流程信息化管理和同步记录,加强对执法活动的实时监督。Building a service-oriented government with limited powers and clear responsibilities. The state delimits administrative power in accordance with the law. China has established a principle under which administrative bodies should not take any action that is not mandated by law. It has introduced a list of well-defined government powers and a list of responsibilities, and prohibited any power not provided for by law, or any illegal use of power. In its effort to improve governance, China has accelerated the transformation of government functions, streamlining administration and delegating power to the lower levels, exercising better supervision over the market, and providing efficient services to business. The people and businesses are thus provided with better services. China has established strict procedures for administrative law enforcement and a system of benchmarks for administrative discretion, with unified standards in law enforcement and rigorous discretionary rules, to ensure the legitimate rights and interests of the people and businesses. To make law enforcement more transparent, China has expanded the scope and channels of disclosure, and opened online portals for the public to obtain information. Twenty-five provinces and equivalent administrative units have online platforms providing information on law enforcement and on the progress and results of cases in process. Twenty-two provinces and equivalent administrative units disclose written judgments online, and 17 provinces and equivalent administrative units disclose administrative review decisions online. To strengthen the supervision of law enforcement, China has established a performance appraisal system with a focus on law enforcement, promoted IT application in law enforcement and the management and synchronized recording of case-handling procedures, and strengthened real-time supervision over law enforcement activities.
确保审判权检察权依法独立公正行使。发布五个“人民法院五年改革纲要”和“人民检察院改革规划”。全面实施立案登记制,有诉必理,保障当事人诉权。实行以法官检察官员额制为核心的司法人员分类管理制度改革,推进司法职业保障制度改革,司法人员正规化、专业化、职业化水平进一步提升。全面落实司法责任制,真正做到“谁办案、谁负责”。贯彻宽严相济刑事政策,进一步完善刑事诉讼程序,推动认罪认罚从宽制度改革,完善刑事案件速裁程序运行机制,深化案件繁简分流,构建中国特色立体化、多层次刑事诉讼体系。在有条件的地方实行省级以下地方法院、检察院人财物统一管理,探索设立跨行政区划的人民法院和人民检察院,最高人民法院设立六个巡回法庭,设立知识产权法院、互联网法院、金融法院等。加强对公共利益的司法保护,建立检察机关提起公益诉讼制度,截至2019年3月,全国检察机关共办理公益诉讼案件157095件。Ensuring independent and impartial exercise of judicial and procuratorial powers. China has issued five outlines for five-year reform of the people’s courts and five plans on reform of the people’s procuratorates. To protect citizen’s right of action, it has implemented a case docketing and registration system across the board, which ensures that every case application receives a response. China has reformed the management of judicial personnel, adopted a quota system for judges and procurators, and initiated job security reform for judicial personnel, enabling them to be more regularized and professional. It has fully implemented a judicial responsibility system to ensure that those who have handled a case assume full responsibility for it. The judiciary has combined punishment and clemency in handling criminal cases, further improved criminal proceedings, and introduced reforms on showing clemency to suspects and defendants who cooperate fully. It has improved the fast-track sentencing procedure for criminal cases, further separated the handling of simple and complex cases, and formed a multi-layer criminal litigation system with Chinese characteristics. Where conditions permit, local courts and procuratorates under the provincial level have carried out unified management of personnel, funds and property. China is exploring setting up people’s courts and people’s procuratorates across administrative boundaries. The Supreme People’s Court now has six circuit courts, and there are also courts that handle intellectual property and financial cases, and online courts. The state has strengthened the protection of public interest, and public interest lawsuits are filed by procuratorial organs. By March 2019, 157,095 cases of public interest had been handled by procuratorial organs.
深化司法公开。全面推进阳光司法,不断加强审判流程、庭审活动、裁判文书、执行信息司法公开平台和人民检察院案件信息公开平台建设。截至2019年2月,中国审判流程信息公开网公开案件信息3.7亿项,中国庭审公开网直播庭审259万件,中国裁判文书网公开文书6382万份,访问量226亿次。人民检察院案件信息公开网自2014年10月1日开通以来,公开案件程序性信息928万余件,发布重要案件信息58万余条,公开法律文书386万余份,接受辩护与代理网上预约30万余人次。加强对司法活动的监督,深化刑事诉讼监督,加强民事行政诉讼监督,不断完善人民陪审员和人民监督员制度。Improving judicial openness. To increase judicial transparency, China has improved the platforms for releasing information on judicial process, trials, written judgments, and the execution of judgments, and the platform on disclosing information on cases handled by people’s procuratorates. As of February 2019, China Judicial Process Information Online had disclosed information on 370 million cases, the National Court Hearing Online had broadcast 2.59 million court trials, and China Judgements Online had disclosed 63.82 million copies of judgments, attracting a total of 2.26 billion visits. Since its launch on October 1, 2014, the online information disclosure service of the procuratorates has disclosed information on the proceedings of 9.28 million cases and 580,000 items of information on major cases, put online 3.86 million legal documents, and booked 300,000 defense and litigation applications online. China has strengthened supervision over judicial activities, criminal proceedings, and civil administrative proceedings, and improved the system of people’s jurors and supervisors.
保障当事人获得公正审判的权利。推进以审判为中心的刑事诉讼制度改革,严格贯彻罪刑法定、证据裁判、非法证据排除等法律原则,完善出庭作证机制,强化庭审功能。充分保障犯罪嫌疑人和被告人的辩护权,犯罪嫌疑人自被侦查机关第一次讯问或者被采取强制措施之日起,有权委托辩护人,被告人有权随时委托辩护人;开展法律援助值班律师和刑事案件律师辩护全覆盖试点工作,实现法院、看守所法律援助工作站全覆盖,努力保障所有刑事案件被告人在审判阶段都能获得律师辩护和帮助;保障辩护律师会见、阅卷、调查取证、质证和辩论辩护等各项诉讼权利;完善保障律师依法履职机制,建立健全维护律师执业权利快速联动处置机制;开通律师服务平台,为律师办案提供便利。坚持疑罪从无,防范和纠正冤假错案。2013年至2019年3月,各级人民法院依法对5876名被告人宣告无罪,确保无罪的人不受刑事追究;再审改判刑事案件8568件,其中依法纠正呼格吉勒图案、聂树斌案、“五周案”等重大冤错案件49件,并依法予以国家赔偿。严格控制并慎用死刑,大幅减少适用死刑的罪名。2007年,最高人民法院收回死刑复核权。Guaranteeing the right to fair trial for all parties. China has promoted the reform of the criminal litigation system with a focus on adjudication, strictly enforced the principles of “no penalty without a law”, evidence-based verdict, and exclusionary rule, improved the mechanism for witnesses to appear in court, and strengthened the role of court trials. China has fully guaranteed the right to defense of criminal suspects and defendants. A criminal suspect has the right to entrust a defender from the date when organs of investigation conduct the first interrogation or a compulsory measure is taken against the suspect. A defendant has the right to authorize a defender at any time. Pilot work has been launched to ensure duty counsels offer legal aid for all cases and legal defense is provided in all criminal cases, and legal aid stations can be found at all courts and detention houses, to ensure that defendants in all criminal cases can obtain legal defense and support in trial. The state protects defense lawyers’ rights to meet their clients, to read case files, to investigate and obtain evidence, to conduct cross-examination, and to debate and defend, and other litigious rights. It has improved the mechanism for lawyers to perform their duties by law, formed a joint response system to ensure lawyers’ right of practice, and established a platform to provide appropriate services to them. China implements the principle of presumption of innocence to prevent and correct miscarriages of justice. From 2013 to March 2019, people’s courts at all levels acquitted 5,876 defendants, ensuring that no one should be prosecuted without criminal evidence. Wrongful verdicts on 8,568 criminal cases were overturned, including 49 major cases concerning Hugjiltu for rape and murder, Nie Shubin for rape and murder, and Zhou Jikun, Zhou Jiahua, Zhou Zaichun, Zhou Zhengguo and Zhou Zaihua for murder. The wrongly-convicted all received state compensation in accordance with the law. China has strictly controlled the death penalty, reducing the number of crimes for capital punishment by a significant margin. In 2007, the Supreme People’s Court took back the right to review all capital sentences.
保障犯罪嫌疑人、被告人、服刑人员、戒毒人员及刑满释放人员的合法权利。规范强制措施,减少羁押性强制措施的适用,实行看守所在押人员入所权利义务告知制度,建立在押人员投诉调查处理机制。深化狱务公开,完善对监所管理人员执法监督,保障服刑人员合法权利不受侵犯。实行人文关怀,开展离监探亲。全面推进社区矫正制度,截至2019年5月,已累计接收社区矫正对象445万人,累计解除矫正375万人,在册社区矫正对象70多万人,社区矫正对象在矫正期间再犯罪率一直处于0.2%的较低水平。新中国成立至1975年,对战争罪犯、反革命罪犯和部分普通刑事罪犯进行过七次特赦。根据现行宪法,2015年和2019年,两次对部分服刑罪犯予以特赦。出台禁毒法、戒毒条例等,依法保障戒毒人员合法权益,开展执法监督。健全完善刑满释放人员救助管理制度,落实社会救助和就业安置措施,促进刑满释放人员顺利融入社会。Guaranteeing the legitimate rights and interests of criminal suspects, defendants, prisoners, patients abstained from drugs and people released after serving their sentence. China has regulated compulsory measures and reduced the application of compulsory custodial measures. When the detainees enter a detention house, they are informed of their rights and obligations, and their complaints are handled in accordance with the procedure. Prison affairs are open to the public. China has improved supervision over the law enforcement in prisons and detention houses, to ensure that prisoners’ legitimate rights are not infringed. Some prisoners are allowed to leave prisons and visit their relatives. The system of community service has been extensively implemented. By the end of May 2019, a total of 4.45 million persons throughout the country had received community service orders. Of these, 3.75 million had completed their service, and 700,000 were still subject to their service orders. The recidivism rate in the case of those assigned to community service is low, only 0.2 percent. Between 1949 and 1975, amnesties were granted on seven occasions to war criminals, counterrevolutionary criminals and some prisoners facing criminal charges. In accordance with the Constitution, amnesty was granted to some prisoners in 2015 and 2019. The state has promulgated the Narcotics Control Law and the Regulations on Drug Rehabilitation, ensured the legitimate rights and interests of persons on rehabilitation, and carried out law enforcement supervision. China has improved the assistance and management system for people released after completing their prison sentence, ensures their access to social assistance, and provides assistance to them in employment so that they can smoothly return to normal life.
建立健全权利救济和救助制度。畅通国家赔偿请求渠道,扩大赔偿范围,明确举证责任,增加精神损害赔偿,提高赔偿标准,保障赔偿金及时支付,进一步完善行政赔偿、刑事赔偿和非刑事司法赔偿制度。国家刑事赔偿标准随经济社会发展不断提高,侵犯公民人身自由权每日赔偿金额从1995年的17.16元人民币,上升到2019年的315.94元人民币。2013年至2019年3月,各级人民法院审结国家赔偿案件61978件。健全完善国家司法救助制度,设立司法救助委员会,积极推动司法救助与社会救助、法律援助的衔接,帮助无法获得有效赔偿的受害人摆脱生活困境。2015年至2018年,对生活困难当事人发放司法救助款37.5亿元。Improving the system of right remedy and assistance. The channels for applying for state compensation have been expanded, with more types of cases eligible for compensation and the burden of proof made clear. The state has increased compensation for infliction of mental distress, raised standards of compensation, and guaranteed that compensation is paid in a timely manner. The systems of administrative compensation, criminal compensation and non-criminal judicial compensation have been further improved. Criminal compensation has increased over the years along with economic and social development of the country. The daily compensation for violation of citizens’ personal liberty has risen from RMB17.16 in 1995 to RMB315.94 in 2019. From 2013 to March 2019, the people’s courts at all levels concluded 61,978 cases involving state compensation. China has improved the state judicial assistance system. It has established a judicial assistance committee to actively dovetail judicial assistance with social assistance and legal aid, and help victims in difficulty who have not been able to obtain effective compensation. From 2015 to 2018, RMB3.75 billion of judicial assistance was granted to victims in difficulty.
公共法律服务更加优质便捷。建立健全法律援助制度,2013年至2018年,全国法律援助机构共组织办理法律援助案件778.8万余件,受援人847.5万余人次,提供法律咨询4526.8万余人次。全面推进律师事业,截至2018年,律师队伍发展到42.3万多人,律师事务所发展到3万多家。完善公共法律服务体系,建设公共法律服务实体平台、“12348”法律服务热线和法律服务网络三大平台,实现申请快捷化、审查简便化,更加便民利民。截至2018年,全国建成2917个县(市、区)公共法律服务中心、3.9万多个乡镇(街道)公共法律服务工作站,为65万个村(居)配备法律顾问,各省(自治区、直辖市)均已建成“12348”法律服务热线平台。推进司法鉴定管理体制改革,提高司法鉴定质量和公信力,截至2018年,经司法行政机关审核登记的司法鉴定机构有3834家,司法鉴定人45000名。Providing quality and more convenient public legal services. A sound legal aid system has been established. From 2013 to 2018, legal aid institutions handled some 7.79 million legal aid cases, helping 8.48 million people and providing legal consultancy services to 45.27 million people. The state encourages the development of the profession of lawyers. As of 2018, there were 423,000 lawyers and more than 30,000 law firms across the country. China has improved public legal services, and opened a physical platform for providing public legal services, the “12348” free hotline for legal advice, and online legal services. It is convenient to make an application for legal services, and the review process has been streamlined for public benefit. By the end of 2018, there were 2,917 public legal service centers in counties, cities and districts, and more than 39,000 service stations in towns, townships and sub-districts. About 650,000 villages and communities had legal counselors, and all provinces and equivalent administrative units had opened the “12348” legal service hotline. China has reformed the management of forensic assessment to enhance assessment quality and credibility. By 2018, there were 3,834 forensic assessment institutions approved by and registered with judicial administrative organs, with more than 45,000 forensic appraisers.
提高全社会人权法治意识。新中国成立以后,通过广泛宣传宪法、婚姻法,男女平等、婚姻自由等观念逐步树立。从1986年起,在全国范围内连续实施7个五年普法规划,开展宪法和法治宣传教育。把法治教育纳入国民教育体系,在中小学教育中加入人权内容。在高校开设人权专业及相关课程,培养人权方向专业人才。面向各级领导干部、公检法司部门工作人员、媒体从业人员等开展专项人权培训。设立8家国家人权教育与培训基地。出版和发行《人权》《人权研究》《中国人权评论》等专业书刊。中国人权研究会连续出版《中国人权事业发展报告》蓝皮书,积极推动人权学术研究、教育和知识普及。Enhancing public awareness of legal protection of human rights. After the PRC was founded, the government made an intensive effort to enhance public awareness and understanding of the Constitution, the Marriage Law, and ideas such as gender equality and freedom of marriage were gradually accepted by the public. Since 1986, China has implemented seven nationwide five-year plans on enhancing public awareness of the Constitution and the rule of law. China has included education on the rule of law into the national education system and teaching of human rights into primary and middle school education. Human rights majors and other related courses are offered in universities to cultivate human rights professionals. Special human rights training programs are conducted for officials at all levels, staff of organs of public security, procuratorates and courts, and judicial organs, and those who work in the media. China has eight national human rights education and training bases. Professional periodicals including Human Rights, Human Rights Studies, and China Human Rights Review are published in China. The China Society for Human Rights Studies has consecutively published blue papers titled Development of Human Rights in China, to advance research and education on human rights and promote understanding of the subject.
强力反腐维护人民利益。1949年11月,中共中央决定成立中央及各级党的纪律检查委员会;1955年,中国共产党的全国代表会议选举产生中央监察委员会;1978年12月,中国共产党十一届三中全会选举产生新的中央纪律检查委员会。中共十八大以来,加快形成完善的党内法规体系,建立了以党章为本,若干配套党内法规为支撑的党内法规制度体系。2018年3月,中华人民共和国国家监察委员会依法组建,各级纪委监委合署办公,对所有行使公权力的公职人员实行监督全覆盖。从2012年12月至2019年6月,中央纪委立案审查中管干部389人,涉嫌犯罪移送司法机关155人。坚决整治群众身边腐败和作风问题,深入推进扶贫领域腐败和作风问题专项治理,开展民生领域专项整治,深挖涉黑腐败和黑恶势力“保护伞”,坚决清除包庇、纵容黑恶势力的腐败分子。Striking against corruption to safeguard people’s interests. In November 1949, the CPC Central Committee decided to establish discipline inspection committees at all levels. In 1955, the National Conference of the CPC elected a Central Supervision Commission. In December 1978, the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee elected a new Central Commission for Discipline Inspection. Since the 18th CPC National Congress, a sound system of intra-Party regulations has been formed based on the Party Constitution and supported by intra-Party regulations. In March 2018, the Supervision Commission of the People’s Republic of China was established by law. Discipline inspection commissions of the Party and supervision commissions of the government at all levels jointly carry out full supervision over all public functionaries who exercise public power. From December 2012 to June 2019, the CPC Central Commission for Discipline Inspection investigated 389 officials registered at and supervised by the CPC Central Committee, and transferred 155 cases of suspected criminal activity to the judiciary. China has resolutely fought corruption that directly affects ordinary people’s lives, and carried out special campaigns to address corruption and misconduct in poverty alleviation and problems undermining the public interest. It has carried out thorough investigations of criminal syndicate-related corruption and protection rackets, getting rid of corrupt officials who sheltered or connived with criminal syndicates.
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