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Alexander the Great | Biography, Empire, Death, & Facts | Britannica

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Alexander the Great

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Alexander the Great

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Introduction & Top QuestionsLifeBeginnings of the Persian expeditionAsia Minor and the Battle of IssusConquest of the Mediterranean coast and EgyptCampaign eastward to Central AsiaInvasion of IndiaConsolidation of the empireEvaluation

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Why is Alexander the Great famous? Although king of ancient Macedonia for less than 13 years, Alexander the Great changed the course of history. One of the world’s greatest military generals, he created a vast empire that stretched from Macedonia to Egypt and from Greece to part of India. This allowed for Hellenistic culture to become widespread. What was Alexander the Great’s childhood like? Alexander was the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus). From age 13 to 16 he was taught by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who inspired his interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation. As a teenager, Alexander became known for his exploits on the battlefield. How did Alexander the Great die? While in Babylon, Alexander became ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout, and on June 13, 323, he died at age 33. There was much speculation about the cause of death, and the most popular theories claim that he either contracted malaria or typhoid fever or that he was poisoned. What was Alexander the Great like? While he could be ruthless and impulsive, Alexander was also charismatic and sensible. His troops were extremely loyal, believing in him throughout all hardships. Hugely ambitious, Alexander drew inspiration from the gods Achilles, Heracles, and Dionysus. He also displayed a deep interest in learning and encouraged the spread of Hellenistic culture. Alexander the Great (born 356 bce, Pella, Macedonia [northwest of Thessaloníki, Greece]—died June 13, 323 bce, Babylon [near Al-Ḥillah, Iraq]) king of Macedonia (336–323 bce), who overthrew the Persian empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. Already in his lifetime the subject of fabulous stories, he later became the hero of a full-scale legend bearing only the sketchiest resemblance to his historical career. Life He was born in 356 bce at Pella in Macedonia, the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus). From age 13 to 16 he was taught by Aristotle, who inspired him with an interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation, but he was later to advance beyond his teacher’s narrow precept that non-Greeks should be treated as slaves. Left in charge of Macedonia in 340 during Philip’s attack on Byzantium, Alexander defeated the Maedi, a Thracian people. Two years later he commanded the left wing at the Battle of Chaeronea, in which Philip defeated the allied Greek states, and displayed personal courage in breaking the Sacred Band of Thebes, an elite military corps composed of 150 pairs of lovers. A year later Philip divorced Olympias, and, after a quarrel at a feast held to celebrate his father’s new marriage, Alexander and his mother fled to Epirus, and Alexander later went to Illyria. Shortly afterward, father and son were reconciled and Alexander returned, but his position as heir was jeopardized. Why did people think Alexander the Great was a god?Learn more about the life of Alexander the Great.(more)See all videos for this articleIn 336, however, on Philip’s assassination, Alexander, acclaimed by the army, succeeded without opposition. He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip’s murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. He then marched south, recovered a wavering Thessaly, and at an assembly of the Greek League of Corinth was appointed generalissimo for the forthcoming invasion of Asia, already planned and initiated by Philip. Returning to Macedonia by way of Delphi (where the Pythian priestess acclaimed him “invincible”), he advanced into Thrace in spring 335 and, after forcing the Shipka Pass and crushing the Triballi, crossed the Danube to disperse the Getae; turning west, he then defeated and shattered a coalition of Illyrians who had invaded Macedonia. Meanwhile, a rumour of his death had precipitated a revolt of Theban democrats; other Greek states favoured Thebes, and the Athenians, urged on by Demosthenes, voted help. In 14 days Alexander marched 240 miles from Pelion (near modern Korçë, Albania) in Illyria to Thebes. When the Thebans refused to surrender, he made an entry and razed their city to the ground, sparing only temples and Pindar’s house; 6,000 were killed and all survivors sold into slavery. The other Greek states were cowed by this severity, and Alexander could afford to treat Athens leniently. Macedonian garrisons were left in Corinth, Chalcis, and the Cadmea (the citadel of Thebes). Beginnings of the Persian expedition Pompeii: mosaic of Alexander the GreatMosaic of Alexander the Great discovered in the House of the Faun, Pompeii, Italy.(more)From his accession Alexander had set his mind on the Persian expedition. He had grown up to the idea. Moreover, he needed the wealth of Persia if he was to maintain the army built by Philip and pay off the 500 talents he owed. The exploits of the Ten Thousand, Greek soldiers of fortune, and of Agesilaus of Sparta, in successfully campaigning in Persian territory had revealed the vulnerability of the Persian empire. With a good cavalry force Alexander could expect to defeat any Persian army. In spring 334 he crossed the Dardanelles, leaving Antipater, who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 men; he himself commanded about 30,000 foot and over 5,000 cavalry, of whom nearly 14,000 were Macedonians and about 7,000 allies sent by the Greek League. This army was to prove remarkable for its balanced combination of arms. Much work fell on the lightarmed Cretan and Macedonian archers, Thracians, and the Agrianian javelin men. But in pitched battle the striking force was the cavalry, and the core of the army, should the issue still remain undecided after the cavalry charge, was the infantry phalanx, 9,000 strong, armed with 13-foot spears and shields, and the 3,000 men of the royal battalions, the hypaspists. Alexander’s second in command was Parmenio, who had secured a foothold in Asia Minor during Philip’s lifetime; many of his family and supporters were entrenched in positions of responsibility. The army was accompanied by surveyors, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials, and historians; from the outset Alexander seems to have envisaged an unlimited operation.

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After visiting Ilium (Troy), a romantic gesture inspired by Homer, he confronted his first Persian army, led by three satraps, at the Granicus (modern Kocabaş) River, near the Sea of Marmara (May/June 334). The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded; but the Persian line broke, and Alexander’s victory was complete. Darius’s Greek mercenaries were largely massacred, but 2,000 survivors were sent back to Macedonia in chains. This victory exposed western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hastened to open their gates. The tyrants were expelled and (in contrast to Macedonian policy in Greece) democracies were installed. Alexander thus underlined his Panhellenic policy, already symbolized in the sending of 300 panoplies (sets of armour) taken at the Granicus as an offering dedicated to Athena at Athens by “Alexander son of Philip and the Greeks (except the Spartans) from the barbarians who inhabit Asia.” (This formula, cited by the Greek historian Arrian in his history of Alexander’s campaigns, is noteworthy for its omission of any reference to Macedonia.) But the cities remained de facto under Alexander, and his appointment of Calas as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia reflected his claim to succeed the Great King of Persia. When Miletus, encouraged by the proximity of the Persian fleet, resisted, Alexander took it by assault, but, refusing a naval battle, he disbanded his own costly navy and announced that he would “defeat the Persian fleet on land,” by occupying the coastal cities. In Caria, Halicarnassus resisted and was stormed, but Ada, the widow and sister of the satrap Idrieus, adopted Alexander as her son and, after expelling her brother Pixodarus, Alexander restored her to her satrapy. Some parts of Caria held out, however, until 332. Asia Minor and the Battle of Issus Battle of IssusAlexander the Great leading his forces against the retreating Persian army led by Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 bce, detail of a mosaic from the House of the Faun, Pompeii; in the National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy.(more)In winter 334–333 Alexander conquered western Asia Minor, subduing the hill tribes of Lycia and Pisidia, and in spring 333 he advanced along the coastal road to Perga, passing the cliffs of Mount Climax, thanks to a fortunate change of wind. The fall in the level of the sea was interpreted as a mark of divine favour by Alexander’s flatterers, including the historian Callisthenes. At Gordium in Phrygia, tradition records his cutting of the Gordian knot, which could only be loosed by the man who was to rule Asia; but this story may be apocryphal or at least distorted. At this point Alexander benefitted from the sudden death of Memnon, the competent Greek commander of the Persian fleet. From Gordium he pushed on to Ancyra (modern Ankara) and thence south through Cappadocia and the Cilician Gates (modern Külek Boğazi); a fever held him up for a time in Cilicia. Meanwhile, Darius with his Grand Army had advanced northward on the eastern side of Mount Amanus. Intelligence on both sides was faulty, and Alexander was already encamped by Myriandrus (near modern İskenderun, Turkey) when he learned that Darius was astride his line of communications at Issus, north of Alexander’s position (autumn 333). Turning, Alexander found Darius drawn up along the Pinarus River. In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. The struggle turned into a Persian rout and Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander’s hands; the women were treated with chivalrous care.

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Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt From Issus Alexander marched south into Syria and Phoenicia, his object being to isolate the Persian fleet from its bases and so to destroy it as an effective fighting force. The Phoenician cities Marathus and Aradus came over quietly, and Parmenio was sent ahead to secure Damascus and its rich booty, including Darius’s war chest. In reply to a letter from Darius offering peace, Alexander replied arrogantly, recapitulating the historic wrongs of Greece and demanding unconditional surrender to himself as lord of Asia. After taking Byblos (modern Jubayl) and Sidon (Arabic Ṣaydā), he met with a check at Tyre, where he was refused entry into the island city. He thereupon prepared to use all methods of siegecraft to take it, but the Tyrians resisted, holding out for seven months. In the meantime (winter 333–332) the Persians had counterattacked by land in Asia Minor—where they were defeated by Antigonus, the satrap of Greater Phrygia—and by sea, recapturing a number of cities and islands. While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Darius sent a new offer: he would pay a huge ransom of 10,000 talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates. “I would accept,” Parmenio is reported to have said, “were I Alexander”; “I too,” was the famous retort, “were I Parmenio.” The storming of Tyre in July 332 was Alexander’s greatest military achievement; it was attended with great carnage and the sale of the women and children into slavery. Leaving Parmenio in Syria, Alexander advanced south without opposition until he reached Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for two months, and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie. There is no basis for the tradition that he turned aside to visit Jerusalem. In November 332 he reached Egypt. The people welcomed him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrendered. At Memphis Alexander sacrificed to Apis, the Greek term for Hapi, the sacred Egyptian bull, and was crowned with the traditional double crown of the pharaohs; the native priests were placated and their religion encouraged. He spent the winter organizing Egypt, where he employed Egyptian governors, keeping the army under a separate Macedonian command. He founded the city of Alexandria near the western arm of the Nile on a fine site between the sea and Lake Mareotis, protected by the island of Pharos, and had it laid out by the Rhodian architect Deinocrates. He is also said to have sent an expedition to discover the causes of the flooding of the Nile. From Alexandria he marched along the coast to Paraetonium and from there inland to visit the celebrated oracle of the god Amon (at Sīwah); the difficult journey was later embroidered with flattering legends. On his reaching the oracle in its oasis, the priest gave him the traditional salutation of a pharaoh, as son of Amon; Alexander consulted the god on the success of his expedition but revealed the reply to no one. Later the incident was to contribute to the story that he was the son of Zeus and, thus, to his “deification.” In spring 331 he returned to Tyre, appointed a Macedonian satrap for Syria, and prepared to advance into Mesopotamia. His conquest of Egypt had completed his control of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast. In July 331 Alexander was at Thapsacus on the Euphrates. Instead of taking the direct route down the river to Babylon, he made across northern Mesopotamia toward the Tigris, and Darius, learning of this move from an advance force sent under Mazaeus to the Euphrates crossing, marched up the Tigris to oppose him. The decisive battle of the war was fought on October 31, on the plain of Gaugamela between Nineveh and Arbela. Alexander pursued the defeated Persian forces for 35 miles to Arbela, but Darius escaped with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media. Alexander now occupied Babylon, city and province; Mazaeus, who surrendered it, was confirmed as satrap in conjunction with a Macedonian troop commander, and quite exceptionally was granted the right to coin. As in Egypt, the local priesthood was encouraged. Susa, the capital, also surrendered, releasing huge treasures amounting to 50,000 gold talents; here Alexander established Darius’s family in comfort. Crushing the mountain tribe of the Ouxians, he now pressed on over the Zagros range into Persia proper and, successfully turning the Pass of the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes, he entered Persepolis and Pasargadae. At Persepolis he ceremonially burned down the palace of Xerxes, as a symbol that the Panhellenic war of revenge was at an end; for such seems the probable significance of an act that tradition later explained as a drunken frolic inspired by Thaïs, an Athenian courtesan. In spring 330 Alexander marched north into Media and occupied its capital. The Thessalians and Greek allies were sent home; henceforward he was waging a purely personal war. As Mazaeus’s appointment indicated, Alexander’s views on the empire were changing. He had come to envisage a joint ruling people consisting of Macedonians and Persians, and this served to augment the misunderstanding that now arose between him and his people. Before continuing his pursuit of Darius, who had retreated into Bactria, he assembled all the Persian treasure and entrusted it to Harpalus, who was to hold it at Ecbatana as chief treasurer. Parmenio was also left behind in Media to control communications; the presence of this older man had perhaps become irksome. In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae (modern Rayy, near Tehrān) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. After a skirmish near modern Shāhrūd, the usurper had Darius stabbed and left him to die. Alexander sent his body for burial with due honours in the royal tombs at Persepolis. Campaign eastward to Central Asia Darius’s death left no obstacle to Alexander’s claim to be Great King, and a Rhodian inscription of this year (330) calls him “lord of Asia”—i.e., of the Persian empire; soon afterward his Asian coins carry the title of king. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian, he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion westward, perhaps to modern Āmol, he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. He also accepted the surrender of Darius’s Greek mercenaries. His advance eastward was now rapid. In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern Herāt). At Phrada in Drangiana (either near modern Nad-e ʿAli in Seistan or farther north at Farah), he at last took steps to destroy Parmenio and his family. Philotas, Parmenio’s son, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, was implicated in an alleged plot against Alexander’s life, condemned by the army, and executed; and a secret message was sent to Cleander, Parmenio’s second in command, who obediently assassinated him. This ruthless action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander’s position relative to his critics and those whom he regarded as his father’s men. All Parmenio’s adherents were now eliminated and men close to Alexander promoted. The Companion cavalry was reorganized in two sections, each containing four squadrons (now known as hipparchies); one group was commanded by Alexander’s oldest friend, Hephaestion, the other by Cleitus, an older man. From Phrada, Alexander pressed on during the winter of 330–329 up the valley of the Helmand River, through Arachosia, and over the mountains past the site of modern Kābul into the country of the Paropamisadae, where he founded Alexandria by the Caucasus. Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Crossing the Hindu Kush northward over the Khawak Pass (11,650 feet [3,550 metres]), Alexander brought his army, despite food shortages, to Drapsaca (sometimes identified with modern Banu [Andarab], probably farther north at Qunduz); outflanked, Bessus fled beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya), and Alexander, marching west to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh [Wazirabad] in Afghanistan), appointed loyal satraps in Bactria and Aria. Crossing the Oxus, he sent his general Ptolemy in pursuit of Bessus, who had meanwhile been overthrown by the Sogdian Spitamenes. Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he was later mutilated after the Persian manner (losing his nose and ears); in due course he was publicly executed at Ecbatana. From Maracanda (modern Samarkand) Alexander advanced by way of Cyropolis to the Jaxartes (modern Syrdarya), the boundary of the Persian empire. There he broke the opposition of the Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursued them into the interior. On the site of modern Leninabad (Khojent) on the Jaxartes, he founded a city, Alexandria Eschate, “the farthest.” Meanwhile, Spitamenes had raised all Sogdiana in revolt behind him, bringing in the Massagetai, a people of the Shaka confederacy. It took Alexander until the autumn of 328 to crush the most determined opponent he encountered in his campaigns. Later in the same year he attacked Oxyartes and the remaining barons who held out in the hills of Paraetacene (modern Tajikistan); volunteers seized the crag on which Oxyartes had his stronghold, and among the captives was his daughter, Roxana. In reconciliation Alexander married her, and the rest of his opponents were either won over or crushed. An incident that occurred at Maracanda widened the breach between Alexander and many of his Macedonians. He murdered Cleitus, one of his most-trusted commanders, in a drunken quarrel, but his excessive display of remorse led the army to pass a decree convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason. The event marked a step in Alexander’s progress toward Eastern absolutism, and this growing attitude found its outward expression in his use of Persian royal dress. Shortly afterward, at Bactra, he attempted to impose the Persian court ceremonial, involving prostration (proskynesis), on the Greeks and Macedonians too, but to them this custom, habitual for Persians entering the king’s presence, implied an act of worship and was intolerable before a human. Even Callisthenes, historian and nephew of Aristotle, whose ostentatious flattery had perhaps encouraged Alexander to see himself in the role of a god, refused to abase himself. Macedonian laughter caused the experiment to founder, and Alexander abandoned it. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections. Invasion of India In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized command. If Plutarch’s figure of 120,000 men has any reality, however, it must include all kinds of auxiliary services, together with muleteers, camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers, entertainers, women, and children; the fighting strength perhaps stood at about 35,000. Recrossing the Hindu Kush, probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander divided his forces. Half the army with the baggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas, both cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass, while he himself led the rest, together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. His advance through Swāt and Gandhāra was marked by the storming of the almost impregnable pinnacle of Aornos, the modern Pir-Sar, a few miles west of the Indus and north of the Buner River, an impressive feat of siegecraft. In spring 326, crossing the Indus near Attock, Alexander entered Taxila, whose ruler, Taxiles, furnished elephants and troops in return for aid against his rival Porus, who ruled the lands between the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum) and the Acesines (modern Chenāb). In June Alexander fought his last great battle on the left bank of the Hydaspes. He founded two cities there, Alexandria Nicaea (to celebrate his victory) and Bucephala (named after his horse Bucephalus, which died there); and Porus became his ally. How much Alexander knew of India beyond the Hyphasis (probably the modern Beas) is uncertain; there is no conclusive proof that he had heard of the Ganges. But he was anxious to press on farther, and he had advanced to the Hyphasis when his army mutinied, refusing to go farther in the tropical rain; they were weary in body and spirit, and Coenus, one of Alexander’s four chief marshals, acted as their spokesman. On finding the army adamant, Alexander agreed to turn back. On the Hyphasis he erected 12 altars to the 12 Olympian gods, and on the Hydaspes he built a fleet of 800 to 1,000 ships. Leaving Porus, he then proceeded down the river and into the Indus, with half his forces on shipboard and half marching in three columns down the two banks. The fleet was commanded by Nearchus, and Alexander’s own captain was Onesicritus; both later wrote accounts of the campaign. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, pitiless slaughter; at the storming of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes (Ravi) River, Alexander received a severe wound which left him weakened. On reaching Patala, located at the head of the Indus delta, he built a harbour and docks and explored both arms of the Indus, which probably then ran into the Rann of Kachchh. He planned to lead part of his forces back by land, while the rest in perhaps 100 to 150 ships under the command of Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, made a voyage of exploration along the Persian Gulf. Local opposition led Nearchus to set sail in September (325), and he was held up for three weeks until he could pick up the northeast monsoon in late October. In September Alexander too set out along the coast through Gedrosia (modern Baluchistan), but he was soon compelled by mountainous country to turn inland, thus failing in his project to establish food depots for the fleet. Craterus, a high-ranking officer, already had been sent off with the baggage and siege train, the elephants, and the sick and wounded, together with three battalions of the phalanx, by way of the Mulla Pass, Quetta, and Kandahar into the Helmand Valley; from there he was to march through Drangiana to rejoin the main army on the Amanis (modern Minab) River in Carmania. Alexander’s march through Gedrosia proved disastrous; waterless desert and shortage of food and fuel caused great suffering, and many, especially women and children, perished in a sudden monsoon flood while encamped in a wadi. At length, at the Amanis, he was rejoined by Nearchus and the fleet, which also had suffered losses. Consolidation of the empire Alexander the Great's empireAlexander the Great's conquests spread Greek civilization and culture into Asia and Egypt. His vast empire stretched eastward into India.(more)Alexander now proceeded farther with the policy of replacing senior officials and executing defaulting governors on which he had already embarked before leaving India. Between 326 and 324 over a third of his satraps were superseded and six were put to death, including the Persian satraps of Persis, Susiana, Carmania, and Paraetacene; three generals in Media, including Cleander, the brother of Coenus (who had died a little earlier), were accused of extortion and summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried, and executed. How far the rigour that from now onward Alexander displayed against his governors represents exemplary punishment for gross maladministration during his absence and how far the elimination of men he had come to distrust (as in the case of Philotas and Parmenio) is debatable; but the ancient sources generally favourable to him comment adversely on his severity. In spring 324 he was back in Susa, capital of Elam and administrative centre of the Persian empire; the story of his journey through Carmania in a drunken revel, dressed as Dionysus, is embroidered, if not wholly apocryphal. He found that his treasurer, Harpalus, evidently fearing punishment for peculation, had absconded with 6,000 mercenaries and 5,000 talents to Greece; arrested in Athens, he escaped and later was murdered in Crete. At Susa Alexander held a feast to celebrate the seizure of the Persian empire, at which, in furtherance of his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians into one master race, he and 80 of his officers took Persian wives; he and Hephaestion married Darius’s daughters Barsine (also called Stateira) and Drypetis, respectively, and 10,000 of his soldiers with native wives were given generous dowries. This policy of racial fusion brought increasing friction to Alexander’s relations with his Macedonians, who had no sympathy for his changed concept of the empire. His determination to incorporate Persians on equal terms in the army and the administration of the provinces was bitterly resented. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. In addition, Persian nobles had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard. Peucestas, the new governor of Persis, gave this policy full support to flatter Alexander; but most Macedonians saw it as a threat to their own privileged position. The issue came to a head at Opis (324), when Alexander’s decision to send home Macedonian veterans under Craterus was interpreted as a move toward transferring the seat of power to Asia. There was an open mutiny involving all but the royal bodyguard; but when Alexander dismissed his whole army and enrolled Persians instead, the opposition broke down. An emotional scene of reconciliation was followed by a vast banquet with 9,000 guests to celebrate the ending of the misunderstanding and the partnership in government of Macedonians and Persians—but not, as has been argued, the incorporation of all the subject peoples as partners in the commonwealth. Ten thousand veterans were now sent back to Macedonia with gifts, and the crisis was surmounted. In summer 324 Alexander attempted to solve another problem, that of the wandering mercenaries, of whom there were thousands in Asia and Greece, many of them political exiles from their own cities. A decree brought by Nicanor to Europe and proclaimed at Olympia (September 324) required the Greek cities of the Greek League to receive back all exiles and their families (except the Thebans), a measure that implied some modification of the oligarchic regimes maintained in the Greek cities by Alexander’s governor Antipater. Alexander now planned to recall Antipater and supersede him by Craterus, but he was to die before this could be done. In autumn 324 Hephaestion died in Ecbatana, and Alexander indulged in extravagant mourning for his closest friend; he was given a royal funeral in Babylon with a pyre costing 10,000 talents. His post of chiliarch (grand vizier) was left unfilled. It was probably in connection with a general order now sent out to the Greeks to honour Hephaestion as a hero that Alexander linked the demand that he himself should be accorded divine honours. For a long time his mind had dwelt on ideas of godhead. Greek thought drew no very decided line of demarcation between god and man, for legend offered more than one example of men who, by their achievements, acquired divine status. Alexander had on several occasions encouraged favourable comparison of his own accomplishments with those of Dionysus or Heracles. He now seems to have become convinced of the reality of his own divinity and to have required its acceptance by others. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. The cities perforce complied, but often ironically: the Spartan decree read, “Since Alexander wishes to be a god, let him be a god.” In the winter of 324 Alexander carried out a savage punitive expedition against the Cossaeans in the hills of Luristan. The following spring at Babylon he received complimentary embassies from the Libyans and from the Bruttians, Etruscans, and Lucanians of Italy; but the story that embassies also came from more distant peoples, such as Carthaginians, Celts, Iberians, and even Romans, is a later invention. Representatives of the cities of Greece also came, garlanded as befitted Alexander’s divine status. Following up Nearchus’s voyage, he now founded an Alexandria at the mouth of the Tigris and made plans to develop sea communications with India, for which an expedition along the Arabian coast was to be a preliminary. He also dispatched Heracleides, an officer, to explore the Hyrcanian (i.e., Caspian) Sea. Suddenly, in Babylon, while busy with plans to improve the irrigation of the Euphrates and to settle the coast of the Persian Gulf, Alexander was taken ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout; 10 days later, on June 13, 323, he died in his 33rd year; he had reigned for 12 years and eight months. His body, diverted to Egypt by Ptolemy, the later king, was eventually placed in a golden coffin in Alexandria. Both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities he received divine honours.

No heir had been appointed to the throne, and his generals adopted Philip II’s half-witted illegitimate son, Philip Arrhidaeus, and Alexander’s posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander IV, as kings, sharing out the satrapies among themselves, after much bargaining. The empire could hardly survive Alexander’s death as a unit. Both kings were murdered, Arrhidaeus in 317 and Alexander in 310/309. The provinces became independent kingdoms, and the generals, following Antigonus’s lead in 306, took the title of king.

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1Early life

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1.1Lineage and childhood

1.2Education

2Heir of Philip II

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2.1Regency and ascent of Macedon

2.2Exile and return

3King of Macedon

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3.1Accession

3.2Consolidation of power

3.3Balkan campaign

3.4Destruction of Thebes

4Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire

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4.1Asia Minor

4.2The Levant and Syria

4.3Egypt

4.4Assyria and Babylonia

4.5Persia

4.6Fall of the Persian Empire and the East

4.7Problems and plots

4.8Macedon in Alexander's absence

4.9Coinage

5Indian campaign

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5.1Forays into the Indian subcontinent

5.2Revolt of the Hellenic army

6Last years in Persia

7Death and succession

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7.1Post-death events

7.2Division of the Macedonian Empire

7.3Last plans

8Character

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8.1Generalship

8.2Physical appearance

8.3Personality

8.4Personal relationships

8.5Sexuality

9Battle record

10Legacy

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10.1Hellenistic kingdoms

10.2Founding of cities

10.3Funding of temples

10.4Hellenization

10.4.1Hellenization in South and Central Asia

10.5Influence on Rome

10.6Letters

10.7In legend

10.8In ancient and modern culture

11Historiography

12See also

13References

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13.1Notes

13.2Citations

13.3Sources

13.3.1Primary sources

13.3.2Secondary sources

14Further reading

15External links

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Alexander the Great

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Military commander and king of Macedon (356–323 BC)

This article is about the ancient king of Macedonia. For other uses, see Alexander the Great (disambiguation).

Alexander the GreatBasileusAlexander in the Alexander MosaicKing of MacedonReign336–323 BCPredecessorPhilip IISuccessorAlexander IVPhilip IIIHegemon of the Hellenic LeagueReign336–323 BCPredecessorPhilip IISuccessorDemetrius I of MacedonPharaoh of EgyptReign332–323 BCPredecessorDarius IIISuccessorAlexander IVPhilip III

Royal titulary

Horus name

mk-kmtMekemetProtector of Egypt

Second Horus name:ḥḳꜣ-ḳnj tkn-ḫꜣswtHeqaqeni tekenkhasutThe brave ruler who has attacked foreign lands

Third Horus name:ḥḳꜣ ḥḳꜣw nw tꜣ (r) ḏr-fHeqa heqau nu ta (er) djerefThe ruler of the rulers of the entire land

Fourth Horus name:ṯmꜣ-ꜥTjema'aThe sturdy-armed one

Nebty name

mꜣj wr-pḥty jṯ ḏww tꜣw ḫꜣswtMai werpehty itj dju tau khasutThe lion, great of might, who takes possession of mountains, lands, and deserts

Golden Horus

kꜣ (nḫt) ḫwj bꜣḳ(t) ḥḳꜣ wꜣḏ(-wr) šnw n jtnKa (nakht) khui baq(et) heqa wadj(wer) shenu en AtenThe (strong) bull who protects Egypt, the ruler of the sea and of what the sun encircles

Prenomen (Praenomen)

stp.n-rꜥ mrj-jmnSetepenre meryamunChosen by Ra, beloved by Amun

Nomen

ꜣrwksjndrsAluksindresAlexandros

King of PersiaReign330–323 BCPredecessorDarius IIISuccessorAlexander IVPhilip IIIBorn20 or 21 July 356 BCPella, MacedonDied10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)Babylon, Mesopotamia, Macedonian EmpireSpouseRoxanaStateiraParysatisIssue

Alexander IV

Heracles[a]

GreekἈλέξανδρος[b]DynastyArgeadFatherPhilip II of MacedonMotherOlympias of EpirusReligionAncient Greek religion

Alexander III of Macedon (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος, romanized: Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great,[c] was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon.[d] He succeeded his father Philip II to the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20 and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy military campaign throughout Western Asia, Central Asia, parts of South Asia, and Egypt. By the age of 30, he had created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.[1] He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered to be one of history's greatest and most successful military commanders.[2][3]

Until the age of 16, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle. In 335 BC, shortly after his assumption of kingship over Macedon, he campaigned in the Balkans and reasserted control over Thrace and parts of Illyria before marching on the city of Thebes, which was subsequently destroyed in battle. Alexander then led the League of Corinth, and used his authority to launch the pan-Hellenic project envisaged by his father, assuming leadership over all Greeks in their conquest of Persia.[4][5]

In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Persian Empire and began a series of campaigns that lasted for 10 years. Following his conquest of Asia Minor, Alexander broke the power of Achaemenid Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those at Issus and Gaugamela; he subsequently overthrew Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety.[e] After the fall of Persia, the Macedonian Empire held a vast swath of territory between the Adriatic Sea and the Indus River. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and invaded India in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over Porus, an ancient Indian king of present-day Punjab, at the Battle of the Hydaspes. Due to the demand of his homesick troops, he eventually turned back at the Beas River and later died in 323 BC in Babylon, the city of Mesopotamia that he had planned to establish as his empire's capital. Alexander's death left unexecuted an additional series of planned military and mercantile campaigns that would have begun with a Greek invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars broke out across the Macedonian Empire, eventually leading to its disintegration at the hands of the Diadochi.

With his death marking the start of the Hellenistic period, Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism that his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism and Hellenistic Judaism. He founded more than twenty cities, with the most prominent being the city of Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture led to the overwhelming dominance of Hellenistic civilization and influence as far east as the Indian subcontinent. The Hellenistic period developed through the Roman Empire into modern Western culture; the Greek language became the lingua franca of the region and was the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire up until its collapse in the mid-15th century AD. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of Achilles, featuring prominently in the historical and mythical traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military achievements and unprecedented enduring successes in battle made him the measure against which many later military leaders would compare themselves,[f] and his tactics remain a significant subject of study in military academies worldwide.[6]

Early life

Lineage and childhood

Archaeological site of Pella, Greece, Alexander's birthplace

This article is part of a series aboutAlexander the Great

Early life

Education

Personal relationships

Early rule

Consolidation of power

Balkan campaign

Pelium

Thebes

Conquest of the Persian Empire

Asia Minor

Granicus

Halicarnassus

Syria

Issus

Tyre

Egypt

Gaza

Mesopotamia

Gaugamela

Persia

Persian Gate

Persepolis

Bactria

Cyropolis

Sogdian Rock

Expedition into India

Indian campaigns

Cophen

Aornos

Hydaspes

Mallian

Death and legacy

Death

Tomb

Hellenistic period

Cities

Cult

Cultural impact

Legends

Alexander Romance

Historiography

Anabasis

Chronology

Cultural depictions

Islamic theories

vte

Alexander III was born in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon,[7] on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC (although the exact date is uncertain).[8][9] He was the son of the erstwhile king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias (daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus).[10][g] Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander.[11]

Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood.[12] According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a seal engraved with a lion's image.[13] Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations for these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.[13]

On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander.[14] Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.[12]

In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future general Cleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus of Acarnania.[15] Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.[16]

When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed.[12] Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him.[17] Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as India. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age 30), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala.[18]

Education

Roman medallion depicting Olympias, Alexander's mother

When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the Academy to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.[19]

Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.[20] Alexander was able to quote Euripides from memory.[21]

During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed Artaxerxes III.[22][23][24] Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine, possible future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as Amminapes, future satrap of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named Sisines.[22][25][26][27] This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state.[25]

Suda writes that Anaximenes of Lampsacus was one of Alexander's teachers, and that Anaximenes also accompanied Alexander on his campaigns.[28]

Heir of Philip II

Regency and ascent of Macedon

Main articles: Philip II of Macedon and Rise of Macedon

Further information: History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)

Philip II of Macedon, Alexander's father

At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip II had waged war against the Thracians to the north, which left Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent.[12] During Philip's absence, the Thracian tribe of Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly and drove them from their territory. The territory was colonized, and a city, named Alexandropolis, was founded.[29]

Upon Philip's return, Alexander was dispatched with a small force to subdue the revolts in southern Thrace. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander reportedly saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. While Philip was occupied in Thrace, Alexander was ordered to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.[30]

Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest.[31] Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.[32]

Battle plan from the Battle of Chaeronea

As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.[33]

After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached Sparta, they were refused, but did not resort to war.[34] At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire.[35][36]

Exile and return

When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice in 338 BC,[37] the niece of his general Attalus.[38] The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.[39] During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.[38]

At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another."— Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.[40]

In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians.[41] He continued to Illyria,[41] where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with Glaucias, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before.[42] However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son.[41] Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties.[43]

In the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus.[41] Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir.[41] Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him.[41] Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.[44]

King of Macedon

Accession

Further information: Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)

Pausanius assassinates Philip II, Alexander's father, during his procession into the theatre

In summer 336 BC, while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias.[h] As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20.[45][46][47]

Consolidation of power

The emblema of the Stag Hunt Mosaic, c. 300 BC, from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions.[48]

Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed.[49] He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed for having been involved in his father's assassination, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice, and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,[49] who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.[50]

Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to be left alive.[50] Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.[45][47][51]

News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the Peloponnese.[52]

Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight.[53] This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes."[54] At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.[55]

Balkan campaign

Main article: Alexander's Balkan campaign

The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts" against the Thracians in 335 BC

Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.[56] The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river[57] (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish.[58]

News then reached Alexander that the Illyrian chieftain Cleitus and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.[59]

Destruction of Thebes

While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south.[60] While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace.[60] Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent.[61]

Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire

Main articles: Wars of Alexander the Great and Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia

Asia Minor

Further information: Battle of the Granicus, Siege of Halicarnassus, and Siege of Miletus

Map of Alexander's empire and his route

Alexander the Great

1200km820miles

Babylon15Malavas14Hydaspes13Cophen12Cyropolis11Persian Gate10Uxians9Gaugamela8Alexandria7Gaza6Tyre5Issus4Miletus3Granicus2

Pella1

After his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II began the work of establishing himself as hēgemṓn (Greek: ἡγεμών) of a league which according to Diodorus was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in 480 and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sent Parmenion, Amyntas, Andromenes, Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men into Anatolia to make preparations for an invasion.[62][63] At first, all went well. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near Magnesia by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary Memnon of Rhodes.[62][63]

Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000,[60] drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria.[64][i] He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.[60]

After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea.[65] Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander.[66]

Alexander Cuts the Gordian Knot by Jean-Simon Berthélemy (1767)

From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city.[67] At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia".[68] According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.[69]

The Levant and Syria

Further information: Battle of Issus and Siege of Tyre (332 BC)

In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at Issus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure.[70] He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.[71] Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant.[66] In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege.[72][73] The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into slavery.[74]

Egypt

Further information: Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)

Name of Alexander the Great in Egyptian hieroglyphs (written from right to left), c. 332 BC, Egypt. Louvre Museum.

When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. However, Alexander was met with resistance at Gaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt".[75] After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery.[76]

Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander from the Persians. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. It appears that the Egyptian people did not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner – nor that he was absent for virtually his entire reign.[77] Alexander restored the temples neglected by the Persians and dedicated new monuments to the Egyptian gods. In the temple of Luxor, near Karnak, he built a chapel for the sacred barge. During his brief months in Egypt, he reformed the taxation system on the Greek models and organized the military occupation of the country, but, early in 331 BC, he left for Asia in pursuit of the Persians.[77]

Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator.[78] To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert,[77] at which he was pronounced the son of the deity Amun.[79] Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with horns, using the Horns of Ammon as a symbol of his divinity.[80] The Greeks interpreted this message – one that the gods addressed to all pharaohs – as a prophecy.[77]

During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death.[81] Control of Egypt passed to Ptolemy I (son of Lagos), the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305–30 BC) after the death of Alexander.[82]

Assyria and Babylonia

Further information: Battle of Gaugamela

Entry of Alexander into Babylon by Charles Le Brun (1665)

Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into Achaemenid Assyria in Upper Mesopotamia (now northern Iraq) and defeated Darius again at the Battle of Gaugamela.[83] Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two.[84] Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamadan) while Alexander captured Babylon.[85]

Babylonian astronomical diaries say that "the king of the world, Alexander" sent his scouts with a message to the people of Babylon before entering the city: "I shall not enter your houses".[86]

Persia

Further information: Battle of the Persian Gate

Site of the Persian Gate in modern-day Iran; the road was built in the 1990s.

From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury.[85] He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.[87]

On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days.[88] Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months.[89] During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes;[90] Plutarch and Diodorus allege that Alexander's companion, the hetaera Thaïs, instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision.[91][92][93] Plutarch claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires,[91] but that the flames had already spread to most of the city.[91] Curtius claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning.[91] Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person:

Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?[94]

Fall of the Persian Empire and the East

Administrative document from Bactria dated to the seventh year of Alexander's reign (324 BC), bearing the first known use of the "Alexandros" form of his name, Khalili Collection of Aramaic Documents[95]

Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.[96] The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman.[97] As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander.[98] Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.[99] He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.[100] The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.[101] However, as basic forms of community life and the general structure of government were maintained and resuscitated by Alexander under his own rule, he, in the words of the Iranologist Pierre Briant "may therefore be considered to have acted in many ways as the last of the Achaemenids."[102]

Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia.[103]

In 329 BC, Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.[104] However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.[105]

Problems and plots

The Killing of Cleitus, by André Castaigne (1898–1899)

During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors.[106] This was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes.[102] The Greeks however regarded the gesture of proskynesis as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.[107]

During the long rule of the Achaemenids, the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government, the army, and the many satrapies were specifically reserved for Iranians and to a major degree Persian noblemen.[102] The latter were in many cases additionally connected through marriage alliances with the royal Achaemenid family.[102] This created a problem for Alexander as to whether he had to make use of the various segments and people that had given the empire its solidity and unity for a lengthy period of time.[102] Pierre Briant explains that Alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in Asia Minor, Babylonia or Egypt; he also had to (re)create a central government with or without the support of the Iranians.[102] As early as 334 BC he demonstrated awareness of this, when he challenged incumbent King Darius III "by appropriating the main elements of the Achaemenid monarchy's ideology, particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants".[102] Alexander wrote a letter in 332 BC to Darius III, wherein he argued that he was worthier than Darius "to succeed to the Achaemenid throne".[102] However, Alexander's eventual decision to burn the Achaemenid palace at Persepolis in conjunction with the major rejection and opposition of the "entire Persian people" made it impracticable for him to pose himself as Darius' legitimate successor.[102] Against Bessus (Artaxerxes V) however, Briant adds, Alexander reasserted "his claim to legitimacy as the avenger of Darius III".[102]

A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.[108]

Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in the Anabasis of Alexander, Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment, and likely died soon after.[109] It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.[110]

Macedon in Alexander's absence

When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon.[61] Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence.[61] The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis.[61] Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them.[111] There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.[112]

In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia.[113] Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.[114] However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[16]

Coinage

Silver tetradrachm of Alexander the Great struck by Balakros or his successor Menes, both former somatophylakes (bodyguards) of Alexander, when they held the position of satrap of Cilicia in the lifetime of Alexander, c. 333–327 BC. The obverse shows Heracles, ancestor of the Macedonian royal line and the reverse shows a seated Zeus Aëtophoros.[115]

The conquest by Philip II of Pangaeum and then of the island of Thasos between 356 and 342 BC brought rich gold and silver mines under Macedonian control.[116]

Alexander appears to have introduced a new coinage in Cilicia in Tarsus, after the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, which went on to become the main coinage of the empire.[117] Alexander minted gold staters, silver tetradrachms and drachims, and various fractional bronze coins. The types of these coins remained constant in his empire. The gold series had the head of Athena on the obverse and a winged Nike (Victory) on the reverse.[118] The silver coinage had a beardless head of Heracles wearing a lionskin headdress on the obverse and Zeus aetophoros ('eagle bearer') enthroned with a scepter in his left hand, on the reverse.[119] There are both Greek and non-Greek aspects to this design. Heracles and Zeus were important deities for the Macedonians, with Heracles considered to be the ancestor of the Temenid dynasty and Zeus the patron of the main Macedonian sanctuary, Dium.[117] However, the lion was also the symbolic animal of the Anatolian god Sandas, worshipped at Tarsus.[117] The reverse design of Alexander's tetradrachms is closely modelled on the depiction of the god Baaltars (Baal of Tarsus), on the silver staters minted at Tarsus by the Persian satrap Mazaeus before Alexander's conquest.[117]

Alexander did not attempt to impose uniform imperial coinage throughout his new conquests. Persian coins continued to circulate in all the satrapies of the empire.[120]

Indian campaign

Main article: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great

Forays into the Indian subcontinent

Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent

After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (Indian name Ambhi), the ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.[121] Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund,[122] supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality.

The Phalanx Attacking the Centre in the Battle of the Hydaspes by André Castaigne (1898–1899)

On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the Battle of the Hydaspes. After that victory, he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC.

In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of the Kunar Valley, the Guraeans of the Guraeus Valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner Valleys.[123] A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora, and Aornos.[121]

The fort of Massaga was reduced after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was seriously wounded in the ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble."[124] A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.[121]

Porus surrenders to Alexander

After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and won an epic battle against King Porus, who ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes and the Acesines (Chenab), in what is now the Punjab, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC.[125] Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas).[126][127] Choosing a local helped him control these lands that were distant from Greece.[128] Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time.[129] The other was Nicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab.[130] Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus, there was an elephant who fought bravely against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax because he thought that a great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).[131]

Revolt of the Hellenic army

Asia in 323 BC, the Nanda Empire and the Gangaridai of the Indian subcontinent, in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbours

East of Porus's kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east.[132] This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.[133]

As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs [6.4 km], its depth one hundred fathoms [180 m], while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants.[134]

Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) and other Indian tribes; while besieging the Mallian citadel, Alexander suffered a near-fatal injury when an arrow penetrated his armor and entered his lung.[135][136]

Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran.[137] Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.[138]

Last years in Persia

Alexander (left) and Hephaestion (right): Both were connected by a tight man-to-man friendship.[139]

Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa.[140][141] As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.[142]

After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men.[143] In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.[141]

Alexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, by Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes (1796)

Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.[144] Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.[145] During his visit to Pasargadae, Alexander ordered his architect Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb.[145]

Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning.[146] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon along with a decree for public mourning.[146] Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly after Hephaestion.[147]

On the evening of May 29, Alexander organized a banquet for his army to celebrate the end of the campaign of India and the onset of the invasion of the Arabian Peninsula. There is a tradition that they would only start serious drinking after everyone was done with their meals, but the wine was usually heavily watered.[148]

Death and succession

Main article: Death of Alexander the Great

A Babylonian astronomical diary (c. 323–322 BC) recording the death of Alexander (British Museum, London)

Before his death, someone asked Alexander on who would be his designated successor should he die, he responded: "To the strongest one." He may have also added that there would be funeral games to be played after his death.[149][150]

On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32.[151] There are two different versions of Alexander's death, differing slightly in details. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa.[152] Alexander developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.[153] In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever, instead dying after some agony.[154] Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.[152]

Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,[155] foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,[156] while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.[154][157] The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, replaced by Craterus, as the head of the alleged plot.[158] Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence[159] and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,[160] Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.[157][160] There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.[157]

The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.[161] However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander.[162][163][164] In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the Alexander Romance.[165] Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause.[165][166] Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.[167]

Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis.[168] A 2004 analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis.[169] Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis, West Nile virus,[170][171] and Guillain-Barré syndrome.[172] Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health.[168]

Post-death events

Alexander the Great: Empire & Death | HISTORY

ander the Great: Empire & Death | HISTORYShowsThis Day In HistoryScheduleTopicsStoriesHistory ClassicsLive TVYour ProfileYour ProfileHistoryFind History on Facebook (Opens in a new window)Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window)Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window)Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window)Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window)Email UpdatesLive TVHistory ClassicsShowsThis Day In HistoryScheduleTopicsStoriesVideosHistory PodcastsHistory VaultShopHomeTopicsAncient GreeceAlexander the GreatAlexander the GreatBy: History.com EditorsUpdated: February 5, 2024 | Original: November 9, 2009copy page linkPrint PageCM Dixon/Print Collector/Getty ImagesAlexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they’d follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. Though Alexander the Great died before realizing his dream of uniting a new realm, his influence on Greek and Asian culture was so profound that it inspired a new historical epoch—the Hellenistic Period.Where Was Alexander the Great From?Alexander III was born in Pella, Macedonia, in 356 B.C. to King Philip II and Queen Olympias—although legend had it his father was none other than Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods.Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire.History Lists: Ancient Empire BuildersBucephalusAt age 12, Alexander showed impressive courage when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, an enormous stallion with a furious demeanor. The horse became his battle companion for most of Alexander’s life.When Alexander was 13, Philip called on the great philosopher Aristotle to tutor his son. Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander’s interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy.Alexander was just 16 when Philip went off to battle and left his son in charge of Macedonia. In 338 B.C., Alexander saw the opportunity to prove his military worth and led a cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes—a supposedly unbeatable, select army made up entirely of male lovers—during the Battle of Chaeronea.Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Sacred Band of Thebes.Ancient EmpiresWatch the three-episode documentary event, Ancient Empires. Available to stream now.WATCH NOWAlexander Becomes KingIn 336 B.C., Alexander’s father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. Just 20 years old, Alexander claimed the Macedonian throne and killed his rivals before they could challenge his sovereignty.He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. Once he’d cleaned house, Alexander left to follow in his father’s footsteps and continue Macedonia’s world domination.Alexander appointed the general Antipater as regent and headed for Persia with his army. They crossed the Hellespont, a narrow strait between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and faced Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus River. Victory went to Alexander and the Macedonians.Alexander then headed south and easily took the city of Sardes. But his army encountered resistance in the cities of Miletus, Mylasa and Halicarnassus. Under siege yet not beaten, Halicarnassus held out long enough for King Darius III, the newest Persian king, to amass a substantial army.Gordian KnotFrom Halicarnassus, Alexander headed north to Gordium, home of the fabled Gordian knot, a group of tightly-entwined knots yoked to an ancient wagon. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia.As the story goes, Alexander took on the challenge but was unable to unravel the knot by hand. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph.Battle of IssusIn 333 B.C., Alexander and his men encountered a massive Persian army led by King Darius III near the town of Issus in southern Turkey. Alexander’s forces were greatly outnumbered in men but not in experience or the determination for revenge and to claim Persia’s great wealth, much of it plundered.As it became clear Alexander would win the Battle of Issus, Darius fled with what remained of his troops, leaving his wife and family behind. His mother, Sisygambis, was so upset she disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son.By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leader—in fact, he never lost a battle in his life. He would build an empire on the back of his motto, “there is nothing impossible to him who will try.”Battle of TyreNext, Alexander took over the Phoenician cities of Marathus and Aradus. He rejected a plea from Darius for peace and took the towns of Byblos and Sidon.He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. But Alexander had no navy to speak of and Tyre was surrounded by water.Alexander instructed his men to build a causeway to reach Tyre. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Again and again, Tyrian forces thwarted Alexander’s clever attempts to gain entry, and he realized he needed a strong navy to penetrate their defenses.He amassed a large fleet, finally breached the city’s walls in July 332 B.C. and executed thousands of Tyrians for daring to defy him; many others were sold into slavery.Alexander Enters EgyptAncient Empires: Alexander and EgyptAfter rejecting another peace offer from Darius, Alexander set out for Egypt. He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. After several weeks, he took the town and entered Egypt where he established the city that still bears his name: Alexandria.Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of supposed good counsel. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but Alexander kept mum about the experience. Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity.Alexander Becomes King of PersiaAfter conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. Following fierce fighting and heavy losses on both sides, Darius fled and was assassinated by his own troops. It’s said Alexander was sad when he found Darius’s body and he gave him a royal burial.Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Darius’s murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. Alexander couldn’t let the claim stand.After relentless pursuit by Alexander, Bessus’s troops handed Bessus over to Ptolemy, Alexander’s good friend, and he was mutilated and executed. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia.ProskynesisTo gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. He began dressing like a Persian and adopted the practice of proskynesis, a Persian court custom that involved bowing down and kissing the hand of others, depending on their rank.The Macedonians were less than thrilled with the changes in Alexander and his attempt to be viewed as a deity. They refused to practice proskynesis and some plotted his death.Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed).Alexander Kills CleitusIn 328 B.C., Cleitus, another general and close friend of Alexander, also met a violent end. Fed up with Alexander’s new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements.Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him. Some historians believe Alexander killed his general in a fit of drunkenness—a persistent problem that plagued him through much of his life.Alexander struggled to capture Sogdia, a region of the Persian Empire that remained loyal to Bessus. The Sogdians found a refuge at the pinnacle of a rock and refused Alexander’s demand to surrender.Not one to take “no” for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane.As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. He married her despite her Sogdian heritage and she joined him on his journey.Alexander Enters IndiaAncient Empires: Alexander in IndiaIn 327 B.C., Alexander marched on Punjab, India. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. In 326 B.C., Alexander met King Porus of Paurava at the Hydaspes River.Porus’s army was less experienced than Alexander’s, but they had a secret weapon—elephants. Even so, after a fierce battle in a raging thunderstorm, Porus was defeated.One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. It’s unclear if he died from battle wounds or of old age, but Alexander named the city of Bucephala after him.Alexander wanted to press on and attempt to conquer all of India, but his war-weary soldiers refused, and his officers convinced him to return to Persia. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli.After recovering, he divided his troops, sending half of them back to Persia and half to Gedrosia, a desolate area west of the Indus River.A Mass WeddingIn early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. He also took two more wives for himself.The Macedonian army resented Alexander’s attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. But after Alexander took a firm stand and replaced Macedonian officers and troops with Persians, his army backed down.To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet.How Did Alexander the Great Die?By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s homosexual male lovers.Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia. But he’d never live to see it happen. Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he was poisoned. Either way, he never named a successor.His death—and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard to create.How Old Was Alexander the Great When He Died?After surviving battle after fierce battle, Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. at age 32.Why Was Alexander the Great ‘Great’?Many conquered lands retained the Greek influence Alexander introduced, and several cities he founded remain important cultural centers even today. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period, from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced.SourcesAlexander the Great. Ancient History Encyclopedia.Alexander the Great. Livius.org.Alexander the Great of Macedon Biography. Historyofmacedonia.org.Alexander of Macedonia. San Jose State University.Bucephalus. Ancient History Encyclopedia.The Battle of Issus. Livius.org.The Sacred Band of Thebes, from Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas. Fordham University.The Siege of Tyre (332 BCE). Livius.org.HISTORY Vault: Ancient HistoryFrom Egypt to Greece, explore fascinating documentaries about the ancient world. WATCH NOWBy: History.com EditorsHISTORY.com works with a wide range of writers and editors to create accurate and informative content. All articles are regularly reviewed and updated by the HISTORY.com team. Articles with the “HISTORY.com Editors” byline have been written or edited by the HISTORY.com editors, including Amanda Onion, Missy Sullivan, Matt Mullen and Christian Zapata.

Citation InformationArticle TitleAlexander the GreatAuthorHistory.com EditorsWebsite NameHISTORYURLhttps://www.history.com/topics/ancient-greece/alexander-the-greatDate AccessedMarch 12, 2024PublisherA&E Television NetworksLast UpdatedFebruary 5, 2024Original Published DateNovember 9, 2009Fact CheckWe strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.Print PageSign up for Inside HistoryGet HISTORY’s most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week.Sign UpBy submitting your information, you agree to receive emails from HISTORY and A+E Networks. You can opt out at any time. You must be 16 years or older and a resident of the United States.More details: Privacy Notice | Terms of Use | Contact UsA+E NetworksOur Family of BrandsHistory EducationHistory VaultMobile/AppsNewsShopShare Your OpinionFollow Historydepm+BiographyCrime and InvestigationHistory en EspanolLRWMilitary HistoryAd ChoicesAdvertise With UsAccessibility SupportCopyright PolicyCorporate InformationEmployment OpportunitiesFAQ/Contact UsPrivacy NoticeCookie NoticeTerms Of UseTV Parental GuidelinesContact UsCopyright PolicyPrivacy PolicyTerms of UseAd ChoicesAccessibility Support© 2024, A&E Television Networks, LLC. All Rights Reserv

Alexander the Great

ander the GreatEducationSign InMenuDonateENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRYENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRYAlexander the GreatAlexander the GreatAlexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. His empire ushered in significant cultural changes in the lands he conquered and changed the course of the region’s history.Grades5 - 8SubjectsGeography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Ancient CivilizationsImageAlexander the GreatPhoto of a marble bust of a man.Photograph by Kenneth Garrett, National GeographicArticleVocabularyAlexander the Great, also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia is known as one of the greatest generals in all history.Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. in Pella, Macedonia, to King Philip II. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. When Alexander was a teenager, his father hired Aristotle to be his private tutor. He studied with Aristotle for three years and from Aristotle’s teachings, Alexander developed a love of science, particularly of medicine and botany. Alexander included botanists and scientists in his army to study the lands he conquered.In 336 B.C.E., at age 20, Alexander became king of Macedonia when a political rival assassinated his father. Alexander began his reign by subduing rivals in the Greek and Macedonian regions. At a council of the League of Corinth, he was chosen as the commander of a military invasion of Asia. King Alexander began his invasion of the Middle East in 334 B.C.E. He spent most of his reign on a military campaign through northeast Africa and southwestern Asia.Alexander built many new cities in the lands he conquered, including Alexandria in Egypt. He went on to conquer the lands of the Persian Empire, establishing more cities, and like Alexandria, often naming them after himself. His conquest continued through Asia until he reached the shores of the Ganga (Ganges) River in India. At this point, his army refused to continue further into India, exhausted and discouraged by heavy rains.Alexander was 32 when he died in 323 B.C.E.During his 13-year reign as the king of Macedonia, Alexander created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.CreditsMedia CreditsThe audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.DirectorTyson Brown, National Geographic SocietyAuthorNational Geographic SocietyProduction ManagersGina Borgia, National Geographic SocietyJeanna Sullivan, National Geographic SocietyProgram SpecialistsSarah Appleton, National Geographic Society, National Geographic SocietyMargot Willis, National Geographic SocietyotherLast UpdatedOctober 19, 2023User PermissionsFor information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.MediaIf a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.TextText on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service.InteractivesAny interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives.Related ResourcesNational Geographic Headquarters 1145 17th Street NW Washington, DC 20036ABOUTNational Geographic SocietyNatGeo.comNews and ImpactContact UsExploreOur ExplorersOur ProgramsEducationNat Geo LiveStorytellers CollectiveTraveling ExhibitionsJoin UsWays to GiveApply for a GrantCareersdonateget updatesConnectNational Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. © 1996 - 2024 National Geographic Society. All rights reserved.Privacy Notice|Sustainability Policy|Terms of Service|Code of Eth

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1Etymology

2People known as Alexander

Toggle People known as Alexander subsection

2.1Rulers of antiquity

2.2Rulers of the Middle Ages

2.3Modern rulers

2.3.1Other royalty

2.4Religious leaders

2.5Other people

2.5.1Antiquity

2.5.2Middle Ages

2.5.3Modern

3People with the given name

4In other languages

5Variants and diminutives

6See also

7References

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Alexander

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This article is about the male first name. For other uses, see Alexander (disambiguation)."Aleksander" redirects here. For the Hasidic dynasty, see Aleksander (Hasidic dynasty).

AlexanderStatue of Alexander the Great, whose fame popularized the name's use throughout Europe and AsiaPronunciation/ˌælɪɡˈzændər/ AL-ig-ZAN-dərAncient Greek: [aléksandros]Modern Greek: [aˈleksanðros]Czech: [ˈalɛksandr]German: [alɛkˈsandɐ]Polish: [alɛkˈsandɛr]Russian: [ɐlʲɪkˈsandr]Serbo-Croatian: [aleksǎːndar, alěksaːn-]Swedish: [alɛkˈsǎnːdɛr]GenderMaleName dayAugust 30OriginWord/nameVia Latin Alexander, originally from the Greek Ἀλέξανδρος (Aléxandros), from αλέξειν aléxein meaning "to ward off, keep off, turn away, defend, protect" and ἀνδρός andrós, genitive of ἀνήρ anḗr meaning "man".Meaning"Defender, protector of man", originally meaning "manliness"Other namesNickname(s)Alex, Alec, Al, Xander, ZanderRelated names

Alex

Alec

Axel

Alexandria

Alexandre

Alexandru

Alessandro

Alejandro

Alisdair

Lex

Iskandar

Sander

Sandra

Sandy

Sasha

Xander

This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

Alexander (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος) is a male given name of Greek origin. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history.[1]

Variants listed here are Aleksandar, Aleksander, Aleksandr and Alekzandr. Related names and diminutives include Iskandar, Alec, Alek, Alex, Alexandre, Aleks, Aleksa, Alasdair, Sasha, and Sander; feminine forms include Alexandra, Alexandria, and Sasha.

Etymology[edit]

The name Alexander originates from the Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος (Aléxandros; 'defending men'[2] or 'protector of men'). It is a compound of the verb ἀλέξειν (aléxein; 'to ward off, avert, defend')[3] and the noun ἀνήρ (anḗr, genitive: ἀνδρός, andrós; meaning 'man').[4] It is an example of the widespread motif of Greek names expressing "battle-prowess", in this case the ability to withstand or push back an enemy battle line.[citation needed]

The earliest attested form of the name, is the Mycenaean Greek feminine anthroponym , a-re-ka-sa-da-ra, (/Alexandra/), written in the Linear B syllabic script.[5][6][7] Alaksandu, alternatively called Alakasandu or Alaksandus, was a king of Wilusa who sealed a treaty with the Hittite king Muwatalli II ca. 1280 BC; this is generally assumed to have been a Greek called Alexandros.

The name was one of the epithets given to the Greek goddess Hera and as such is usually taken to mean "one who comes to save warriors". In the Iliad, the character Paris is known also as Alexander.[8] The name's popularity was spread throughout the Greek world by the military conquests of King Alexander III, commonly known as "Alexander the Great". Most later Alexanders in various countries were directly or indirectly named after him.[9][10]

People known as Alexander[edit]

Alexander has been the name of many rulers, including kings of Macedon, of Scotland, emperors of Russia and popes.

Rulers of antiquity[edit]

Alexander (Alexandros of Ilion), more often known as Paris of Troy

Alexander of Corinth, 10th king of Corinth (816–791 BC)

Alexander I of Macedon

Alexander II of Macedon

Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great

Alexander IV of Macedon

Alexander V of Macedon

Alexander of Pherae despot of Pherae between 369 and 358 BC

Alexander I of Epirus king of Epirus about 342 BC

Alexander II of Epirus king of Epirus 272 BC

Alexander of Corinth, viceroy of Antigonus Gonatas and ruler of a rump state based on Corinth c. 250 BC

Alexander (satrap) (died 220 BC), satrap of Persis under Seleucid king Antiochus III

Alexander Balas, ruler of the Seleucid kingdom of Syria between 150 and 146 BC

Alexander Zabinas, ruler of part of the Seleucid kingdom of Syria based in Antioch between 128 and 123 BC

Alexander Jannaeus king of Judea, 103–76 BC

Alexander of Judaea, son of Aristobulus II, king of Judaea

Alexander Severus (208–235), Roman emperor

Julius Alexander, lived in the 2nd century, an Emesene nobleman

Domitius Alexander, Roman usurper who declared himself emperor in 308

Rulers of the Middle Ages[edit]

Alexander, Byzantine Emperor (912–913)

Alexander I of Scotland (c. 1078–1124)

Alexander II of Scotland (1198–1249)

Alexander Nevsky (1220–1263), Prince of Novgorod and Grand Prince of Vladimir

Alexander III of Scotland (1241–1286)

Nicholas Alexander of Wallachia, Voivode of Wallachia (died 1364)

Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria, tsar of Bulgaria (beginnings of the 14th century – 1371)

Aleksandr Mikhailovich of Tver, Prince of Tver as Alexander I and Grand Prince of Vladimir-Suzdal as Alexander II (1301–1339)

Sikandar Khan Ghazi, Vizier of Sylhet (from 1303)

Aleksander (1338–before 1386), Prince of Podolia (son of Narymunt)

Sikandar Shah Miri, better known as Sikandar Butshikan ("Sikandar the Iconoclast"), sixth sultan of the Shah Miri dynasty of Kashmir (1353–1413)

Sikandar Shah, Sultan of Bengal (1358–1390)

Alexander II of Georgia (1483–1510)

Alexandru I Aldea, ruler of the principality of Wallachia (1431–1436)

Eskender, Emperor of Ethiopia (1472–1494)

Alexander Jagiellon (Alexander of Poland), King of Poland (1461–1506)

Nuruddin Sikandar Shah, Sultan of Bengal (1481)

Alexandru Lăpuşneanu, Voivode of Moldavia (1499–1568)

Sikandar Shah of Gujarat, ruler of Gujarat Sultanate (died 1526)

Sikandar Shah Suri, Sur dynasty, Shah of Delhi (died 1559)

Alexandru II Mircea, Voivode or Prince of Wallachia (1529–1577)

Modern rulers[edit]

Alexander I of Russia (1777–1825), emperor of Russia

Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881), emperor of Russia

Alexander III of Russia (1845–1894), emperor of Russia

Alexander Karađorđević, Prince of Serbia (1842–1858)

Alexander of Bulgaria (1857–1893), first prince of modern Bulgaria

Alexandru Ioan Cuza, first prince of unified Romania (1859–1866)

Alexander I Obrenović of Serbia (1876–1903), king of Serbia

Alexander, Prince of Lippe (1831–1905), prince of Lippe

Alexander I of Yugoslavia (1888–1934), first king of Yugoslavia

Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia (born 1945), head of the Yugoslav Royal Family

Zog I, also known as Skenderbeg III (1895–1961), king of Albanians

Alexander of Greece (1893–1920), king of Greece

Leka, Crown Prince of Albania (1939–2011), king of Albanians (throne pretender)

Willem-Alexander, King of the Netherlands (born 1967), eldest child of Queen Beatrix and Prince Claus

Other royalty[edit]

Alexander, Judean Prince, one of the sons of Herod the Great from his wife Mariamne

Alexander Helios, Ptolemaic prince, one of the sons of Cleopatra and Mark Anthony

Alexander, Judean Prince, son to the above Alexander and Cappadocian princess Glaphyra

Alexander (d. 1418), son of Bulgarian tsar Ivan Shishman

Prince Alexander John of Wales (1871), short-lived son of Edward VII

Prince Alexandre of Belgium (1942–2009)

Prince Alfred of Edinburgh and Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1874–1899)

Olav V of Norway (Prince Alexander of Denmark) (1903–1991)

Religious leaders[edit]

Pope Alexander I (pope 97–105)

Alexander of Apamea, 5th-century bishop of Apamea

Pope Alexander II (pope 1058–1061)

Pope Alexander III (pope 1159–1181)

Pope Alexander IV (pope 1243–1254)

Pope Alexander V ("Peter Philarges" c. 1339–1410)

Pope Alexander VI (1492–1503), Roman pope

Pope Alexander VII (1599–1667)

Pope Alexander VIII (pope 1689–1691)

Alexander of Constantinople, bishop of Constantinople (314–337)

St. Alexander of Alexandria, Coptic Pope, Patriarch of Alexandria between 313 and 328

Pope Alexander II of Alexandria, Coptic Pope (702–729)

Alexander of Lincoln, bishop of Lincoln

Alexander of Jerusalem

See also Saint Alexander, various saints with this name

Other people[edit]

Antiquity[edit]

Alexander (artists), the name of a number of artists of ancient Greece and Rome

Alexander of Lyncestis (died 330 BC), contemporary of Alexander the Great

Alexander (son of Polyperchon) (died 314 BC), regent of Macedonia

Alexander (Antigonid general), 3rd-century BC cavalry commander under Antigonus III Doson

Alexander of Athens, 3rd-century BC Athenian comic poet

Alexander Aetolus (fl. 280 BC), poet and member of the Alexandrian Pleiad

Alexander (son of Lysimachus) (fl. 284–281 BC), Macedonian royal

Alexander (grandson of Seleucus I Nicator) (fl. 270–240 BC), Greek Anatolian nobleman

Alexander (Aetolian general), briefly conquered Aegira in 220 BC

Alexander of Acarnania (died 191 BC), confidante of Antiochus III the Great

Alexander Isius (fl. 198–189 BC), Aetolian military commander

Alexander Lychnus, early 1st-century BC poet and historian

Alexander Philalethes, 1st century BC physician

Alexander Polyhistor, Greek scholar of the 1st century BC

Alexander of Myndus, ancient Greek writer on zoology and divination

Alexander of Aegae, peripatetic philosopher of the 1st century AD

Alexander of Cotiaeum, 2nd-century Greek grammarian and tutor of Marcus Aurelius

Alexander Numenius, 2nd-century Greek rhetorician

Alexander Peloplaton, 2nd-century Greek rhetorician

Alexander of Abonoteichus (c. 105–170), Greek religious leader and imposter

Alexander of Aphrodisias (fl. 200), Greek commentator and philosopher

Alexander of Lycopolis, 4th-century author of an early Christian treatise against Manicheans

Alexander, a member of the Jerusalem Temple Sanhedrin mentioned in Acts 4:6

Middle Ages[edit]

Alexander of Hales, English theologian in the 13th century

Modern[edit]

Alexander (magician) (1880–1954), American stage magician specializing in mentalism

People with the given name[edit]

People with the given name Alexander or variants include:

Technoblade (1999–2022), American YouTuber, real name Alexander, surname not made public

Alexander Aigner (1909–1988), Austrian mathematician

Alexander Albon (born 1996), Thai-British racing driver

Aleksander Allila (1890–?), Finnish politician

Alexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov (1883–1946), Russian composer

Alexander Argov (1914–1995), Russian-born Israeli composer

Alexander Armah (born 1994), American football player

Alexander Armstrong (born 1970), British comedian and singer

Aleksandr Averbukh (born 1974), Israeli pole vaulter

Alex Baldock (born 1970), British businessman

Alec Baldwin (born 1958), American actor

Alexander Björk (born 1990), Swedish golfer

Alexander Borodin (1833–1887), Russian composer

Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), Scottish inventor of the first practical telephone

Aleksander Barkov (born 1995), Finnish ice hockey player

Alexander Calder (1898–1976), American sculptor best known for making mobiles

Aleksandr Davidovich (disambiguation), several people

Alexander Davidson (disambiguation), several people

Alexander Day (disambiguation), several people

Alexander Nicholas de Abrew Abeysinghe (1894–1963), Sri Lankan Sinhala politician

Alex DeBrincat (born 1997), American ice hockey player

Alexander Edmund de Silva Wijegooneratne Samaraweera Rajapakse (1866–1937), Sri Lankan Sinhala politician

Aleksandar Djordjevic (born 1967), Serbian basketball player

Alexander Dubček (1921–1992), leader of Czechoslovakia (1968–1969)

Alex Ebert (born 1978), American singer-songwriter

Alexander Lee (born 1988), also known as Alexander or Xander, South Korean singer, member of U-KISS

Alexander Exarch (1810–1891), Bulgarian revivalist, publicist and journalist, participant in the struggle for an independent Bulgarian Exarchate

Alex Ferguson (born 1941), Scottish football player and manager

Alexander Fleming (1881–1955), Scottish discoverer of penicillin

Alexander Zusia Friedman (1897–1943), Polish rabbi, educator, activist, and journalist

Aleksander Gabelic (born 1965), Swedish politician

Alex Galchenyuk (born 1994), American ice hockey player

Alexander Gardner (disambiguation), multiple people

Alexander Glazunov (1865–1936), Russian composer

Alexander Goldberg (born 1974), British rabbi, barrister, and human rights activist

Alexander Goldberg (chemical engineer), Israeli chemical engineer and President of the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology

Alexander Goldscheider (born 1950), Czech/British composer, producer and writer

Alexander Gomelsky (1928–2005), Russian head coach of USSR basketball national team for 30 years

Alexander Gordon (disambiguation), several people

Aleksandr Gordon (1931–2020), Russian-Soviet director, screenwriter and actor

Aleksandr Gorelik (1945–2012), Soviet figure skater

Alexander Gould (born 1994), American actor

Alexander Grothendieck (1928–2014), German-born French mathematician

Alexander Gustafsson (born 1987), Swedish mixed martial arts fighter

Alexander Haig (1924–2010), American general and politician

Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804), first United States Secretary of the Treasury and one of the founding fathers of the United States

Alexander Hamilton Jr. (1786–1875), American attorney and son of Alexander Hamilton

Alexander Hamilton Jr. (1816–1889), son of James Alexander Hamilton and grandson of Alexander Hamilton

Alexander Held (born 1958), German actor

Alexander Henn, German anthropologist

Alexander Henry (1823–1883), mayor of Philadelphia

Alex Higgins (1949–2010), Northern Irish snooker player

Alexander Hollins (born 1996), American football player

Alexander Holtz (born 2002), Swedish ice hockey player

Alex Horne (born 1978), British comedian

Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), Prussian naturalist and explorer

Alexander Ilečko (1937–2023), Slovak sculptor

Alex Jones (born 1974), American radio show host and conspiracy theorist

Aleksandr Kamshalov (1932–2019), Soviet politician

Alex Kapranos (born 1972), Scottish musician, author, songwriter and producer, front-man of Franz Ferdinand

Aleksandar Katai (born 1991), Serbian footballer

Alexander Kerensky (1881–1970) leader of Russian Provisional Government

Alexander Kerfoot (born 1994), Canadian ice hockey player

Alex Killorn (born 1989), Canadian ice hockey player

Alexander Klingspor (born 1977), Swedish painter and sculptor

Aleksandr Kogan (born 1985/86), Moldovan-born American psychologist and data scientist

Alexander Korda (1893–1956), Hungarian film director

Alexander Kucheryavenko (born 1987), Russian ice hockey player

Aleksander Kwaśniewski (born 1954), former President of Poland

Alexander Levinsky (1910–1990), Canadian ice hockey player

Alexander Ivanovich Levitov (1835–1877), Russian writer

Alexander Lévy (born 1990), French golfer

Alexandre Lippmann (1881–1960), French épée fencer

Alexander Ludwig (born 1992), Canadian actor

Alexander "Sandy" Lyle (born 1958), Scottish golfer

Alexander Lukashenko (born 1954), President of Belarus

Alex Manninger (born 1977), Austrian footballer

Alessandro Manzoni (1785–1873), Italian poet and novelist

Alexander "Ali" Marpet (born 1993), American football player

Aleksandr Marshal (born 1957), Russian singer, songwriter, and musician

Alexander Mattison (born 1998), American football player

Alexander McClure (1828–1909), American politician, editor and writer

Alexander Lyell McEwin (1897–1988), known as Lyell McEwin, Australian politician, Minister for Health

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Aleksandr Nikolayev (disambiguation), several people

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Alexander Pichushkin (born 1974), prolific Russian serial killer

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In other languages[edit]

Afrikaans: Alexander

Albanian: Aleksandër

Albanian diminutive: Leka

Amharic: እስክንድር (Isikinidiri, Eskender)

Arabic: اسكندر (Iskandar)

Armenian: Ալեքսանդր (Aleksandr)

Asturian: Alexandru, Xandru

Azerbaijani: İsgəndər/Исҝәндәр/ایسگندر, Aleksandr/Александр/آلئکساندر

Basque: Alesander

Belarusian: Аляксандр (Aliaksandr), Алесь (Ales)

Bengali: সিকান্দর (Sikandor)

Bulgarian: Александър (Aleksandŭr), Сашко (Sashko)

Catalan: Alexandre/Aleixandre

Chinese:

Historical:

Traditional: 烏弋山離, Simplified: 乌弋山离, Baxter-Sagart: /*[ʔ]ˤa lək s-ŋrar [r]aj/

Traditional and Simplified: 阿荔散, Baxter Romanization: 'a lejH sanH

Contemporary: Traditional: 亞歷山大, Simplified: 亚历山大, Pinyin: Yàlìshāndà, Jyutping: aa3 lik6 saan1 daai6, Wugniu: iá-liq-sé-da, BUC: Ā-lĭk-săng-dâi

Czech: Alexandr, Alexander

Danish: Aleksander, Alexander

Dutch: Alexander

Esperanto: Aleksandro

Estonian: Aleksander

English: Alexander

Finnish: Aleksanteri

French: Alexandre

Galician: Alexandre

Georgian: ალექსანდრე (Aleksandre)

German: Alexander

Greek

Mycenaean Greek: (Aléxandros)

Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος (Aléxandros)

Koine Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος (Aléxandros)

Modern Greek: Αλέξανδρος (Aléxandros)

Hawaiian: Alekanekelo

Hebrew: אלכסנדר (Aleksander)

Hindi: सिकंदर (Sikandar)

Hungarian: Sándor, Alexander, Elek

Icelandic: Alexander

Indonesian: Iskandar, Alexander

Irish: Alastar

Italian: Alessandro

Japanese: アレキサンダー (Arekisandā)

Korean: 알렉산더 (Alleksandeo)

Kazakh: Искандер (Iskander)

Kyrgyz: Искендер (Iskender)

Latin: Alexander

Latvian: Aleksandrs

Lithuanian: Aleksandras

Macedonian: Александар (Aleksandar), Сашко (Sashko, Saško)

Malay: Iskandar

Malayalam

Syriac Origin : ചാണ്ടി (t͡ʃaːɳʈI), ഇടിക്കുള (IʈIkkʊɭa)

Greek Origin : അലക്സിയോസ് (alaksIyos), അലക്സി (alaksI)

Anglican Origin : അലക്സാണ്ടര്‍ (alaksa:ndar), അലക്സ് (alaks)

Mongolian: Александр (Alyeksandr)

Norwegian: Aleksander, Alexander

Pashto: سکندر (Sikandar)

Persian: الکساندر (Aleksânder), اسکندر (Eskandar)

Polish: Aleksander

Portuguese: Alexandre, Alexandro, Alessandro, Leandro

Punjabi: Sikandar

Romanian: Alexandru, Alex, Sandu

Russian: Александр (Aleksandr), Саша (Sasha)

Rusyn: Александер (Aleksander)

Sanskrit: अलक्षेन्द्र (Alakṣendra)

Scottish: Alasdair, Alastair, Alistair, Alister

Serbo-Croatian: Александар / Aleksandar

Slovak: Alexander

Slovene: Aleksander

Spanish: Alejandro

Swedish: Alexander

Tagalog: Alejandro

Thai: อเล็กซานเดอร์

Turkish: İskender

Ukrainian: Олександр (Oleksandr, sometimes anglicized Olexander), Сашко (Sashko), Олесь (Oles), Олелько (Olelko)

Urdu: سکندر (Sikandar)

Valencian: Alecsandro, Aleksandro, Aleixandre, Alexandre

Vietnamese: Alexander, A Lịch San

Welsh: Alexander

Yiddish: אלעקסאנדער (Aleksander)

Variants and diminutives[edit]

Ale

Alex

Alexey

Xander

Sasha/Sash

Alexsander

Alixander

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356 bce Alexander the GreatAlexander the Great, detail from Alexander and Porus, painting by Charles Le Brun, 17th century; in the Louvre, Paris, France.(more)© Heritage Images—Hulton Fine Art Collection/Getty ImagesAlexander is born at Pella in Macedonia. He is the son of King Philip II and Queen Olympias. By this time Philip has built Macedonia army into the strongest military force in the region. 343–338 AristotleAristotle, marble portrait bust, Roman copy (2nd century bce) of a Greek original (c. 325 bce); in the Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome, Italy.(more)© A. Dagli Orti—De Agostini/Getty ImagesFrom age 13 to 16 Alexander is tutored by one of the greatest intellectual figures of Western history, Aristotle, who inspires him with an interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation. Alexander also shows military abilities at a young age. At age 16 he is left in charge of Macedonia during Philip’s attack on Byzantium and protects the kingdom from local rivals. At age 18 he leads a successful cavalry charge against the elite fighting force known as the Sacred Band of Thebes, helping his father win a battle against allied Greek states. 336–335 Philip is assassinated in 336, and Alexander becomes king at age 20, inheriting his father’s military forces. He kills his rivals to protect his throne and subdues the Greek states. They agree to supply troops for his planned war against Persia. 334–333 Battle of IssusAlexander the Great leading his forces against the retreating Persian army led by Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 bce, detail of a mosaic from the House of the Faun, Pompeii; in the National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy.(more)Photos.com/ThinkstockCrossing the Dardanelles into Persia, Alexander defeats King Darius III at the Granicus River and in Issus, conquering western Persia. He turns south in order to deny the Persian fleet access to ports along the coast. He decides to disband his own navy and fight a land war in Persia. 332 Alexander conquers Tyre and Egypt, where he founds the city of Alexandria. 331–329 Alexander defeats Darius at Gaugamela and, after Darius’s death, declares himself King of Asia. He consolidates his victory in Persia and uses its wealth to fund his expeditions. His expedition spreads Hellenistic culture throughout the conquered lands. Surveyors, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials, and historians accompany him on his campaigns. In an effort to blend Macedonian and Persian cultures Alexander adopts Persian dress. 327–325 Alexander the Great's empireAlexander the Great's conquests spread Greek civilization and culture into Asia and Egypt. His vast empire stretched eastward into India.(more)Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Alexander invades India, defeating several local rulers. His last great battle is against King Porus at Hydaspes River. Afterward, his weary troops refuse to go further, and he is forced to turn back. A disastrous march through the Gedrosia desert causes great suffering and many deaths. 324 Alexander returns to Susa, the administrative center of the Persian empire. He conducts a mass marriage ceremony between Macedonia soldiers and Persian women. It is another attempt to unite the two cultures. He sends many veterans home with prizes and honors and begins to plan for further expeditions. June 13, 323 After a short illness Alexander dies in Babylon. He has not named a successor, and his empire rapidly splits into warring factions. Eventually, several of his former generals establish their own kingdoms.

Alexander the Great summary

Military campaigns of Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great’s Achievements

Alexander the Great | Achievements

Philip II Summary

Philip II 18th king of Macedonia (359–336 bce), who restored internal peace to his country and by 339 had gained domination over all of Greece by military and diplomatic means, thus laying the foundations for its expansion under his son Alexander III the Great. Philip was a son of Amyntas III. In

army Summary

Army, a large organized armed force trained for war, especially on land. The term may be applied to a large unit organized for independent action, or it may be applied to a nation’s or ruler’s complete military organization for land warfare. Throughout history, the character and organization of

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Alexander the GreatAlexander the Great named a city in India for his horse.(more)Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Alexander the Great was one of the greatest military strategists and leaders in world history. He was also ruthless, dictatorial, and ambitious to the point of regarding himself as divine. His conquests of the Mediterranean states, the Persian empire, and parts of India spread Hellenistic culture across these regions. Rise to Power Alexander was born in 356 bce in Pella, Macedonia, the son of King Philip II and Queen Olympias. In his early teens he became a pupil of Aristotle, who sparked his interest in philosophy and science. However, it was in military affairs that he excelled. In a war against the allied Greek states, 18-year-old Alexander led a cavalry charge that helped Philip win the conflict. In 336 Philip was assassinated. Alexander was acclaimed by the army and succeeded to the throne without opposition. He inherited a highly trained, mobile military force and his father’s dream of conquering the Persian empire. Alexander and the Greek States As king, Alexander immediately moved to assert his authority over the Greek states and to prepare for an invasion of Persia. In quick succession, Alexander defeated the forces of Thessaly, the Triballi in Thrace, a coalition of Illyrians who had invaded Macedonia, and the city-state of Thebes, which he razed to the ground. Cowed, the Greeks acknowledged his authority, and Macedonian garrisons were left in a number of Greek states. Conquest of the Persian Empire Alexander the Great: Battle of IssusDetail of the Battle of Issus between Alexander and Darius III, mosaic from the House of the Faun in Pompeii, c. 2nd century bce; in the National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy.(more)© Alfio Ferlito/Shutterstock.comAlexander knew he needed the wealth of Persia if he was to maintain the army built by Philip. Alexander’s invasion of Persia came at an opportune time. Although the Persian army outnumbered his own, it was less disciplined and poorly led. The Persian king, Darius III, was already losing control over parts of his empire. Alexander commanded a large battle-hardened force of cavalry, foot soldiers, archers, and javelin throwers. He also had a core of skilled, trusted generals including Ptolemy, Cassander, Antigonus, and Seleucus. One of his greatest assets was his own ability to rapidly respond to changing battlefield conditions. With these advantages, the Macedonian king never lost a major battle in 11 years of campaigning. In 334–333 Alexander routed Darius’s forces at the Granicus River and at Issus, forcing Darius to flee. In 332 Alexander conquered Syria, Phoenicia, Tyre, and Egypt, where he founded the historic city of Alexandria. He later defeated Darius for a final time at the battle of Gaugamela. After Darius was killed in 330, Alexander declared himself King of Asia. He spent the next two years consolidating his control over the Persian empire and its vast wealth. During his campaign, Alexander revealed other abilities besides military prowess. As an administrator, he incorporated native rulers into his government, set up democracies in many states, and founded several more cities. He included engineers, architects, scientists, and historians among his entourage. He spread Hellenistic culture and monetary systems across western and Central Asia. Alexander the GreatAlexander the Great, portrait head on a coin of Lysimachus (355–281 bce); in the British Museum, London, England.(more)Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.Alexander also developed a belief in his own divine heritage, which caused problems with his troops. The Macedonians rejected this idea. However, Alexander continued to insist on his divinity, even casting a godlike image of himself on coins. Invasion of India The Victory of Alexander over PorusThe Victory of Alexander over Porus, oil on canvas by Charles-André Van Loo, c. 1738; in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. 65.73 × 91.44 cm.(more)Los Angeles County Museum of Art, The Ciechanowiecki Collection, Gift of The Ahmanson Foundation (M.2000.179.13), www.lacma.orgIn the summer of 327 Alexander invaded India with a newly reinforced army. His ultimate ambition was to reach the Indian Ocean. He impressed the local Indian rulers by storming the nearly impregnable pinnacle of Aornos, a few miles west of the Indus River. On June 1, 326, Alexander fought his last great battle on the banks of the Hydaspes River. He defeated a far larger army led by King Porus, who later became a strong ally. While at the Hyphasis River, Alexander’s troops, exhausted after years of campaigning, mutinied and insisted on returning home. Alexander reluctantly led the army back across India, quelling rebellions and purging corrupt governors along the way. By 324 he arrived in Susa, Persia. He ultimately sent many of his veterans home with riches and honors. Alexander’s Legacy In 323 Alexander traveled to Babylon to plan an exploration of Arabia but was suddenly taken ill. On June 13 he died. His empire split into separate kingdoms. The life of Alexander has fascinated historians and the general public for more than 2,000 years. His reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history. Alexander’s expeditions brought advances in geography and natural sciences and helped shift the major centers of civilization eastward. His greatest contribution was spreading Hellenistic culture from Gibraltar to the Punjab. Greek language and coinage served as common links across these vast trading and cultural networks. In a real sense, Alexander’s achievements helped pave the way for the rise of the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity, and centuries of Byzantine rule.

Alexander the Great summary

Military campaigns of Alexander the Great

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Alexander the Great | Timeline

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Who was Alexander the Great?

Skip to contentNewslettersSubscribeMenuHISTORY & CULTUREWho was Alexander the Great?The son of a king, Alexander was a brilliant military leader who conquered most of the known world—but he wasn't much of a diplomat.Alexander the Great slices the Gordian Knot with his sword in 333 B.C. The legend—depicted in this painting by Jean-Simon Berthelemy—has it that the knot in the city of Gordium (present-day Turkey) was only to be untied by the future conquerer of Asia.Photograph by Universal History Archive, GettyByKristin Baird RattiniFebruary 04, 2019•5 min readThe vast Eurasian empire that Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.) forged was not long-lasting, but his heroic deeds were legendary. Alexander was the son of King Philip II of Macedonia, a realm north of Greece. When Athens was left unstable by the interminable Peloponnesian War, Philip saw an opening and took it; he subdued Greece around 339 B.C.While Philip was at war, Alexander studied math, archery, and other subjects with tutors, including the renowned philosopher Aristotle. According to Greek author Plutarch, Alexander kept a copy of Homer’s Iliad, annotated by Aristotle, “with his dagger under his pillow, declaring that he esteemed it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge.”(Were Alexander the Great and Hephaestion more than friends?)The precocious Alexander was already a seasoned commander in the Macedonian army when he became king at the age of 20 in 336 B.C., after his father’s assassination. In one of his most decisive moves, the young monarch forcefully proved his authority over rebellious Greeks by storming the defiant city of Thebes, slaughtering thousands of residents and enslaving the rest.3:56Persian conquestIn 334 B.C., Alexander set out to conquer the Persian Empire, which had waned in power but remained a behemoth. Alexander’s army numbered fewer than 40,000 men, mostly Macedonian and fiercely loyal. The versatile force included cavalry and heavily armed foot soldiers, who wielded spears and formed a phalanx, advancing relentlessly behind raised shields. Alexander deployed his troops with great skill and earned their devotion by leading them in battle and suffering several wounds.Alexander visited the fabled city of Troy as he crossed the Bosporus into Asia Minor and routed the Persian forces there. Greek cities in Asia Minor that had been under Persian control welcomed his rule. At the Gulf of Issus in 333 B.C., Alexander soundly defeated Persian emperor Darius III, who retreated so hastily, he left behind family members to be taken hostage.Refusing to make peace unless Darius yielded to him as emperor, Alexander swept south along the sea toward Egypt. He seized strategic ports, including the defiant Phoenician port of Tyre. He met with more reverence in Egypt, where he was honored as a god-king like the pharaohs of old—veneration he considered his due.From the Mediterranean, Alexander advanced east into Mesopotamia and engaged Darius’s replenished troops on the plain of Gaugamela in 331 B.C. Once again, Alexander demonstrated that a small army acting in concert was superior to a sprawling, disorganized one. When a gap opened in the Persian ranks, he and his elite cavalrymen dashed into the breach, splitting the opposing army in two. He had conquered the Persians at last.Alexander the Great's fall—and deathBy adding the vast Persian realm to his Balkan kingdom, Alexander forged a Eurasian empire of unprecedented scope. Yet that wasn’t enough. He didn’t heed the Greek lesson about the danger of hubris, striving arrogantly for more than any man could realistically achieve. He subdued Bactria (in modern-day Afghanistan) and wed Roxana, the daughter of a Bactrian chief. He then invaded India in 327 B.C. and crossed the Indus River, the farthest frontier of the old Persian Empire. But monsoons made his troops feverish and mutinous; in 325 B.C., they turned back.(How suspicion and intrigue eroded Alexander's empire.)Alexander’s genius was military, not political or diplomatic. He made fitful efforts to organize his huge empire in the style of the Persians; he hired Persian officials and wed Persian princesses (as did dozens of his commanders). Many Macedonians felt he placed too much trust in people they still viewed as enemies, and Greeks consented only reluctantly to his demand to be recognized as divine like some Near Eastern monarchs. “If Alexander wishes to be a god,” Spartans observed skeptically, “let him be a god.”The mortal Alexander died suddenly (perhaps from typhoid fever) in Babylon in 323 B.C. His empire fractured after his death, but those lands were forever changed, infused with the culture and cosmopolitan spirit of a larger Greek world that Alexander brought into being.This text is an excerpt from the National Geographic special issue The Most Influential Figures of Ancient History.Related TopicsANCIENT HISTORYMILITARYANCIENT GREECEPEOPLE AND CULTUREHISTORY AND CIVILIZATIONYou May Also LikeHISTORY & CULTUREWere Alexander the Great and Hephaestion more than friends?HISTORY & CULTUREWho invented the marathon? It’s not as ancient as you thinkHISTORY & CULTUREWho were the Tarim Basin mummies? 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CoursesSearchGet AI TutoringNEWDonateLog inSign upSearch for courses, skills, and videosMain contentWorld historyCourse: World history > Unit 2Lesson 4: Empire of Alexander the GreatPhilip of Macedon unifies GreeceAlexander the Great takes powerAlexander the Great conquers PersiaDiadochi and the Hellenistic PeriodAlexander the GreatArts and humanities>World history>600 BCE - 600 CE Second-Wave Civilizations>Empire of Alexander the Great© 2024 Khan AcademyTerms of usePrivacy PolicyCookie NoticeAlexander the GreatGoogle ClassroomOverviewAlexander the Great was famous for his military power and is a legendary figure in history.Much of what we know about Alexander the Great is unreliable and steeped in myth; a lot of these mythologies were used by Alexander’s successors.In the Kingdom of Thrace, during the reign of Lysimachus—a successor of Alexander the Great who lived from 361 BCE to 281 BCE—an interesting coin was issued. This coin, which featured the head of Alexander the Great with ram’s horns on either side of his crown, was issued in the ancient city of Parium, in the northwestern region of modern-day Turkey. The horns were the symbol of the Egyptian god Amun—or Zeus, who is often conflated with Amun—from whom Alexander claimed descent. Flanked with these godlike horns, Alexander attained the status of a deity.Silver coin; left, front,, head of Alexander the Great wearing the horns of Zeus Ammon; right, back, seated Athena. Silver coin; left, front,, head of Alexander the Great wearing the horns of Zeus Ammon; right, back, seated Athena. Image credit: British Museum Surprisingly, Alexander himself did not issue coins with his own image; his successors did. Why would his successors refer back to their deceased predecessor as they established new empires? The reason is that Alexander the Great was—and still is—a powerful symbol of power, military genius, and conquest, whether or not this description of him is historically accurate. His image, name, and legendary power remained resonant—and politically visible—long after his death.A history steeped in mythSo how do we tell the history of Alexander, pulling apart the myths and legends and reconstructing an accurate narrative? It’s a difficult task, but it’s an important one, because the history of Alexander is a history of the Greek empire, which had a massive influence on vast regions stretching across Europe, Asia, and Africa. We have ancient narratives of Alexander’s life, written between 30 BCE and the third century CE—hundreds of years after his death. The earliest known account is by the Greek historian Diodorus, but we also have histories written by other historians, including Roman historians; these writers are called the Alexander historians. They interpreted written accounts from shortly after Alexander’s death, penned by those who fought alongside Alexander on his campaigns.Detail showing Alexander the Great. Detail showing Alexander the Great. Image credit: WikipediaIt’s unclear how reliable these narratives are, however, as they are mingled with the propaganda of various Greek and Roman states, who were ruled by emperors that used Alexander’s image to cement their own power. In order to get a fuller picture, historians interpret sources from other regions of Alexander the Great’s empire, like Babylon. On one Babylonian tablet, for example, Alexander’s death is recorded with an inscription in Akkadian that reads “on the 29th day, the king died.”Clay tablet; fragment of a Babylonian astronomical diary in which astronomical and meteorological phenomena observed during the year 323-322 BC are recorded; in month two, mention is made of the death on the 29th day of the lunar month of Alexander the Great, who is referred to simply as "the king".Clay tablet; fragment of a Babylonian astronomical diary in which astronomical and meteorological phenomena observed during the year 323-322 BC are recorded; in month two, mention is made of the death on the 29th day of the lunar month of Alexander the Great, who is referred to simply as "the king". Image credit: British MuseumThe fact that we can gather evidence about Alexander the Great’s life and military campaigns from places so far away from one another paints a picture of an expansive empire. We know that Alexander was a powerful military leader. He led important campaigns and expanded his empire from Greece to Persia, Babylon, Egypt and beyond, taking advantage of local political contexts as he conquered new territory.Mosaic of Alexander the Great, created for the owner of the House of the Faun in Pompeii; unknown artist; 100 BCE; National Archaeological Museum, Naples.Mosaic of Alexander the Great, created for the owner of the House of the Faun in Pompeii; unknown artist; 100 BCE; National Archaeological Museum, Naples. Image credit: WikipediaIt’s also important to remember that history is not comprised simply of the stories of great men. Alexander the Great’s empire developed not only because of his military prowess but also because of his father’s success, which took advantage of an unstable political context in Greece. Alexander’s own conquests happened in very specific political contexts as well, which facilitated his ability to expand his empire rapidly and with little resistance.Ultimately, Alexander’s reign was very short—only about a decade. Perhaps the greatest effect of his empire was the spread of Greek culture through the successor empires that long outlasted Alexander’s rule.The rise of an empireAfter the Peloponnesian war, the Greek poleis, or city-states, were divided and had exhausted many of their resources. This set the stage for a takeover by their northern neighbors, the Macedonians, whose leaders were gaining strength and consolidating their power. Macedonia was generally regarded by the Greeks as a backwards land, good for little more than timber and pasture for sheep. The Macedonians spoke a Greek dialect and, unlike the separate Greek city-states, were ruled by a monarchy and many semi-autonomous clans. One of the most powerful monarchs was Phillip II of Macedon. Although he is often only remembered for being the father of Alexander the Great, Philip II of Macedon—who reigned from 359 to 336 BCE—was an accomplished king and military commander in his own right. His accomplishments set the stage for his son’s victory over Darius III and the conquest of Persia. Philip inherited a weak, underdeveloped society with an ineffective, undisciplined army and molded them into an efficient military force that eventually subdued the territories around Macedonia and subjugated most of Greece. He used bribery, warfare, and threats to secure his kingdom. Without his insight and determination, history would never have heard of Alexander.Bust of Philip II of Macedon.Bust of Philip II of Macedon. Image credit: WikimediaAlexander’s reignIn 336 BCE, after Philip was killed, Alexander was quickly crowned as the king. After subduing any serious threats to his rule, and with the Greek city-states now firmly under Macedonian rule following Charonea, Alexander embarked on the great campaign his father had been planning: the conquest of the mighty Persian Empire. Alexander was able to take advantage of political instability in Persia, and he expanded beyond Persia into Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Bactria. Alexander did not, however, drastically challenge existing administrative systems. Rather, he adapted them for his purposes. Alexander was not interested in imposing his own ideas of truth, religion, or behavior upon conquered populations as long as they willingly kept the supply lines open to feed and equip his troops, which was an important aspect of his ability to rule vast areas. This does not mean, however, that he did not ruthlessly suppress uprisings or hesitate to viciously annihilate those who opposed him.A map showing the route that Alexander the Great took to conquer Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Bactria.A map showing the route that Alexander the Great took to conquer Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Bactria. Image credit: US Military Academy, uploaded by Jan van der Crabben, on December 20, 2011, public domainOver the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some 20 cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris River. The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become an important Mediterranean urban center. The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable and little more than defensive garrisons. Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled in these cities tried to return to Greece. However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of these communities were still thriving and featured elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.Alexander’s cities were most likely intended to be administrative headquarters for his empire, primarily settled by Greeks, many of whom had served in Alexander’s military campaigns. The purpose of these administrative centers was to control the newly conquered subject populations. This purpose was not realized during Alexander’s life, however. Alexander attempted to create a unified ruling class in conquered territories like Persia, often using marriage ties to intermingle the conquered with conquerors. He also adopted elements of the Persian court culture, implementing his own version of their royal robes and imitating some court ceremonies. Many Macedonians resented these policies, believing hybridization of Greek and foreign cultures to be irreverent. Alexander’s attempts at unification also extended to his army. He placed Persian soldiers, some of who had been trained in the Macedonian style, within Macedonian ranks, solving chronic manpower problems.In 327 BCE, with the Persian Empire firmly under his control, Alexander turned his attention to India. He had some victories before reaching the Ganges river, which he intended to cross in order to conquer more of India. However, his exhausted troops mutinied and refused to go farther. Shortly thereafter, as the troops headed back home, Alexander died in 323 BCE, likely due to disease.Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir because his son, Alexander IV, was born after Alexander's death.[Notes and attributions]QuestionsTips & ThanksWant to join the conversation?Log inSort by:Top VotedMaryam4 years agoPosted 4 years ago. Direct link to Maryam's post “Who started ruling after ...”moreWho started ruling after Alexander died? If he had no obvious heir, who took over?AnswerButton navigates to signup page•CommentButton navigates to signup page(18 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreAnswerShow previewShow formatting optionsPost answerPolina Vitić4 years agoPosted 4 years ago. Direct link to Polina Vitić's post “Alexander the Great died ...”moreAlexander the Great died after a bried illness at the age of 32. Legend says that when he lay on his deathbed, and was asked who would inherit his kindgom, he replied that it should go "to the strongest..."Instead of one successor, however, there were actually four generals who succeeded Alexander: Antigonus, Cassander, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. These generals were known as the Diadochi (meaning "successors") and Alexander's empire was divided among the four of them.2 commentsComment on Polina Vitić's post “Alexander the Great died ...”(31 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreRobert James Battam7 years agoPosted 7 years ago. Direct link to Robert James Battam's post “"For Cassander, it was im...”more"For Cassander, it was important to execute Alexander’s wife, child, and mother in order to become the new King of Macedonia without any competition"So, did Cassander do this? did they actually kill off Alexander's family?AnswerButton navigates to signup page•CommentButton navigates to signup page(13 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreAnswerShow previewShow formatting optionsPost answerMartha Mayr7 years agoPosted 7 years ago. Direct link to Martha Mayr's post “Yes, he did.

I checked t...”moreYes, he did.I checked the English / Cassander as well as the German Wikipedia / Kassander, both last edited 2 month ago.It is / was a horribly complicated, confusing, bloody, cruel period and story. No nice readingCommentButton navigates to signup page(14 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemorephoebe.jeske6 years agoPosted 6 years ago. Direct link to phoebe.jeske's post “Wait, so Alexander died a...”moreWait, so Alexander died as his wife was pregnant?AnswerButton navigates to signup page•CommentButton navigates to signup page(6 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreAnswerShow previewShow formatting optionsPost answerbaysim6 years agoPosted 6 years ago. Direct link to baysim's post “Yes. In fact, the son was...”moreYes. In fact, the son was to be killed in the War of the Diadochi that followed.CommentButton navigates to signup page(9 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreLeslie Wolf7 years agoPosted 7 years ago. Direct link to Leslie Wolf's post “Which specific aspects of...”moreWhich specific aspects of Greek culture were absorbed by Alexander's conquered territories in Asia? What constituted Hellenization?AnswerButton navigates to signup page•CommentButton navigates to signup page(5 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreAnswerShow previewShow formatting optionsPost answerHistory Helper7 years agoPosted 7 years ago. Direct link to History Helper's post “There were many aspects, ...”moreThere were many aspects, ranging from language to military. Many Greek gods became worshipped, and Greek became the leading language in many cities, Greek knowledge in philosophy; science; and politics spread, and Greek-style infantry formed the elite core of the post-Alexandrine armies.2 commentsComment on History Helper's post “There were many aspects, ...”(8 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemorewilliamtutwiler5 years agoPosted 5 years ago. Direct link to williamtutwiler's post “Was Alexander the great n...”moreWas Alexander the great nice,or was he a terrible personAnswerButton navigates to signup page•1 commentComment on williamtutwiler's post “Was Alexander the great n...”(4 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreAnswerShow previewShow formatting optionsPost answerchinmaybho41514 years agoPosted 4 years ago. Direct link to chinmaybho4151's post “Aléxandros (Alexander) wa...”moreAléxandros (Alexander) was a very ambitious and competitive person. He had a violent temper and could be rash and stubborn. However he could also be perceptive, logical, and calculating, which helped him in battle. He had a great desire for knowledge, loved philosophy, and was an avid reader, probably due to his tutelage by Aristotélēs (Aristotle). He was very charismatic which allowed him to be a great leader. In his later years, he became paranoid and a megalomaniac. He had delusions of grandeur and desired to conquer the world. Aléxandros always believed himself to be a deity, as his mother, Olympias, had always insisted his father was Zeús himself. One often finds that descriptions such as "nice" or "terrible" are simplistic and unable to capture the entire truth.CommentButton navigates to signup page(7 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreShow more...Leslie Wolf7 years agoPosted 7 years ago. Direct link to Leslie Wolf's post “In the first map, showing...”moreIn the first map, showing the expansion of Macedon, why is Ionia (present-day Turkey) so far removed from the Ionian Sea (west of Greece)?AnswerButton navigates to signup page•CommentButton navigates to signup page(5 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreAnswerShow previewShow formatting optionsPost answer7 years agoPosted 7 years ago. Direct link to 's post “Because it's geographical...”moreBecause it's geographical coordinates place it there. If you are wondering why a sea named Ionian is so far from Ionia it is because: the Ionians often would sail west.9 commentsComment on 's post “Because it's geographical...”(5 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreShow more...jsevak27a year agoPosted a year ago. Direct link to jsevak27's post “He is like George Washing...”moreHe is like George WashingtonAnswerButton navigates to signup page•3 commentsComment on jsevak27's post “He is like George Washing...”(1 vote)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreAnswerShow previewShow formatting optionsPost answerDavid Alexandera year agoPosted a year ago. Direct link to David Alexander's post “Yes, they both rode horse...”moreYes, they both rode horses and owned slaves.2 commentsComment on David Alexander's post “Yes, they both rode horse...”(10 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreLukeSa year agoPosted a year ago. Direct link to LukeS's post “Why did Alexander conquer...”moreWhy did Alexander conquer all of the land?AnswerButton navigates to signup page•CommentButton navigates to signup page(3 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreAnswerShow previewShow formatting optionsPost answerDavid Alexandera year agoPosted a year ago. Direct link to David Alexander's post “He had the army, and the ...”moreHe had the army, and the supplies for the army, and the defenders were weak. He kept going, like the super-rich in the world can't say "enough", but cry out "more, more, more...", Alexander the Great just couldn't stop himself.1 commentComment on David Alexander's post “He had the army, and the ...”(5 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreShow more...Gracie Bannister6 years agoPosted 6 years ago. Direct link to Gracie Bannister's post “So for the Alexander Mosa...”moreSo for the Alexander Mosaic shown above, (I've previously asked this question), when was this really made? I know it was made in the house of Faun, but when is the date that the mosaic was created? I can see that there is a date from 310 and 100 BCE.AnswerButton navigates to signup page•CommentButton navigates to signup page(3 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreAnswerShow previewShow formatting optionsPost answerPanna Gattyan6 years agoPosted 6 years ago. Direct link to Panna Gattyan's post “In my understanding, the ...”moreIn my understanding, the Roman copy was made in 100 BCE and the original Greek copy was made in 310 BCE1 commentComment on Panna Gattyan's post “In my understanding, the ...”(4 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreAlanMakoso6 years agoPosted 6 years ago. Direct link to AlanMakoso's post “Is it true that when Alex...”moreIs it true that when Alexander the Great try to conquer Sparta that Alexander made a lot of threats but Sparta only said if?AnswerButton navigates to signup page•CommentButton navigates to signup page(3 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreAnswerShow previewShow formatting optionsPost answerDavid Alexander6 years agoPosted 6 years ago. Direct link to David Alexander's post “Here is someone else's in...”moreHere is someone else's insight into the matter: https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Alexander-the-Great-not-conquer-SpartaCommentButton navigates to signup page(4 votes)Upvote Button navigates to signup pageDownvote Button navigates to signup pageFlag Button navigates to signup pagemoreLoading...

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Alexander the Great

Contents

Definition

by Joshua J. Mark

published on 14 November 2013

Available in other languages: French, German, Greek, Indonesian, Portuguese, Spanish, Turkish

Alexander the Great & Bucephalus MosaicRuthven (Public Domain)

Alexander III of Macedon, better known as Alexander the Great (l. 21 July 356 BCE – 10 or 11 June 323 BCE, r. 336-323 BCE), was the son of King Philip II of Macedon (r. 359-336 BCE) who became king upon his father's death in 336 BCE and then conquered most of the known world of his day.

He is known as 'the great' both for his military genius and his diplomatic skills in handling the various populaces of the regions he conquered. He is further recognized for spreading Greek culture, language, and thought from Greece throughout Asia Minor, Egypt, and Mesopotamia to India and thus initiating the era of the Hellenistic Period (323-31 BCE) during which four of his generals (his successors, known as the Diadochi), in between their wars for supremacy, continued his policies of integrating Greek (Hellenistic) culture with that of the Near East. He died of unknown causes in 323 BCE without clearly naming a successor (or, according to some accounts, his choice of the commander Perdiccas was ignored) and the empire he built was divided among the Diadochi.

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Alexander's campaigns became legendary after his death, influencing the tactics and careers of later Greek and Roman generals, as well as inspiring numerous biographies attributing to him a god-like status. Modern day historians have generally taken a more critical approach to his life and career than earlier accounts, as evidenced by criticism of his destruction of Persepolis and treatment of the citizens of Tyre, but the general consensus regarding his legacy among Western scholars, anyway, remains largely positive and he remains one of the most popular and recognizable figures in world history.

Alexander the Great (Facial Reconstruction)Arienne King (CC BY-NC-SA)

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Alexander's Youth

When Alexander was young, he was taught to fight and ride by Leonidas of Epirus, a relative of his mother Olympias, as well as to endure hardships such as forced marches. His father, Philip, was interested in cultivating a refined future king and so hired Lysimachus of Acarnania to teach the boy reading, writing, and to play the lyre. This tutelage would instill in Alexander a lifelong love of reading and music. At the age of 13 or 14, Alexander was introduced to the Greek philosopher Aristotle (l. 384-322 BCE) whom Philip hired as a private tutor. He would study with Aristotle until the age of 16, and the two are said to have remained in correspondence throughout Alexander's later campaigns, although evidence of this is anecdotal.

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Aristotle's influence directly bore upon Alexander's later dealings with the people he conquered, in that Alexander never forced the culture of Greece upon the inhabitants of the various regions but merely introduced it in the same way Aristotle used to teach his students. The influence of Leonidas may be seen in Alexander's lifelong resilience and physical stamina as well as in his skill with horses. Alexander is said to have tamed the 'untamable' Bucephalus when he was only 11 or 12 years old.

While his various tutors' influences certainly had a profound effect upon him, Alexander seemed destined for greatness from birth. He had, first of all, a father whose accomplishments laid a firm foundation for his later success. The historian Diodorus Siculus observes:

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During the twenty-four years of his reign as King of Macedonia, in which he started with the slenderest resources, Philip built his own kingdom up into the greatest power in Europe...He projected the overthrow of the Persian Empire, landed forces in Asia and was in the act of liberating the Hellenic communities when he was interrupted by Fate - in spite of which, he bequeathed a military establishment of such size and quality that his son Alexander was enabled to overthrow the Persian Empire without requiring the assistance of allies. These achievements were not the work of Fortune but of his own force of character, for this king stands out above all others for his military acumen, personal courage and intellectual brilliance. (Book XVI.ch.1)

While it is clear that his father had a great impact on him, Alexander himself chose to see his success as ordained by divine forces. He called himself the son of Zeus, and so claimed the status of a demigod, linking his bloodline to his two favorite heroes of antiquity, Achilles and Hercules, and modeling his behavior after theirs. This belief in his divinity was instilled in him by Olympias who also told him that his was a virgin birth as she had been miraculously impregnated by Zeus himself. His birth was associated with great signs and wonders, such as a bright star gleaming over Macedonia that night and the destruction of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. Plutarch writes:

Alexander was born the sixth of Hecatombaeon, which month the Macedonians call Lous, the same day that the temple of Diana at Ephesus was burnt; which Hegesias of Magnesia makes the occasion of a conceit, frigid enough to have stopped the conflagration. The temple, he says, took fire and was burnt while its mistress was absent, assisting at the birth of Alexander. And all the Eastern soothsayers who happened to be then at Ephesus, looking upon the ruin of this temple to be the forerunner of some other calamity, ran about the town, beating their faces, and crying that this day had brought forth something that would prove fatal and destructive to all Asia. (Plutarch, Life of Alexander, I)

At the Oracle of Siwa, he was proclaimed a son of the god Zeus-Ammon.

Though his birth is well documented by historians, there is little information on his youth, aside from tales of his precociousness (he allegedly interviewed visiting dignitaries about the boundaries and strengths of Persia when he was seven years old), his tutors, and his childhood friends. Alexander's friends Cassander (l.c. 355-297 BCE), Ptolemy (l.c. 367-282 BCE), and Hephaestion (l.c. 356-324 BCE) would become his lifelong companions and generals in his army.

Callisthenes (l.c. 360-327 BCE), another friend, was Aristotle's great-nephew, and came to the Macedonian court with the philosopher. He would become court historian and follow Alexander on campaign. Hephaestion remained his best and dearest friend throughout his life and second-in-command of the army. Of Alexander's youth, the historian Worthington writes that Alexander "would have been educated at home, as was the custom in Macedonia, and he would have grown used to seeing (and then participating in) the drinking contests that were part of Macedonian court life" but that, aside from that, "we know surprisingly little about Alexander's boyhood" (33).

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Chaeronea & the Early Campaigns

Alexander's military prowess was first noted at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE. Although only 18 years old, he helped turn the tide of battle in the decisive Macedonian victory which defeated the Greek allied city-states. When Philip II was assassinated in 336 BCE, Alexander assumed the throne, and with the Greek city-states now united under Macedonian rule following Chaeronea, embarked on the great campaign his father had been planning: the conquest of the mighty Persian Empire. Worthington states:

Homer was Alexander's bible and he took Aristotle's edition with him to Asia...During his campaigns Alexander was always intent on finding out everything he could about the areas through which he passed. He took with him an entourage of scientists to record and analyse this information, from botany, biology, zoology and meteorology, to topography. His desire to learn, and to have information recorded as scientifically as possible, probably stemmed from Aristotle's teachings and enthusiasm. (34-35)

With a Macedonian army of 32,000 infantry and 5,100 cavalry, Alexander crossed over to Asia Minor in 334 BCE to begin his conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, defeating the Persian army led by satraps at the Battle of Granicus in May. He then "liberated" (as he phrased his conquest) the cities of Sardis and Ephesus from Persian rule that same year before moving on to others in Asia Minor. At Ephesus, he offered to rebuild the Temple of Artemis, which had been destroyed by arson on the night of his birth, but the city refused his gesture. In 333 BCE, Alexander and his troops defeated the larger force of King Darius III (r. 336-330 BCE) of Persia at the Battle of Issos. Alexander went on to sack the Phoenician cities of Baalbek and Sidon (which had surrendered) in 332 BCE and then lay siege to the island city of Tyre.

So determined was he to conquer the ancient city of Tyre that he built a causeway from the mainland to the island on which to mount his siege engines. This causeway, in time, collected silt and earth and is the reason why Tyre is a part of the mainland in Lebanon today. For their stubborn resistance, the inhabitants of the city were slaughtered and the survivors sold into slavery. His policy regarding the citizens of Tyre is cited by historians, ancient and modern, as a prime example of his ruthlessness.

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In 331 BCE, he conquered Egypt where he founded the city of Alexandria. At the Oracle of Siwa, in the eponymous Egyptian oasis, he was proclaimed a son of the god Zeus-Ammon.

Alexander the Great, Bronze HeadMark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA)

Though he had conquered Egypt, Alexander was not interested in imposing his own ideas of truth, religion, or behavior upon the people as long as they willingly kept the supply lines open to feed and equip his troops (an important aspect of his ability to rule vast areas, which was to be neglected by his successors). This does not mean, however, that he did not ruthlessly suppress uprisings or hesitate to viciously annihilate those who opposed him. After designing the plan for the city of Alexandria, he left Egypt for Syria and northern Mesopotamia to pursue further campaigns against Persia.

The Persian Campaigns

In 331 BCE, Alexander met King Darius III again on the battlefield at Gaugamela (also called the Battle of Arbela), where, once again facing overwhelming numbers, he decisively defeated Darius III who fled the field. Alexander then moved on to take Babylon and Susa which surrendered unconditionally without resistance. In the winter of 330, Alexander marched toward Persepolis, meeting resistance at the Battle of the Persian Gates defended by the hero Ariobarzanes (l. 386-330 BCE) and his sister Youtab Aryobarzan (d. 330 BCE) at the head of the Persian troops. Alexander defeated this force and took Persepolis, which he then burned.

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According to the ancient historian Diodorus Siculus (and other ancient sources), he started the fire which destroyed the main palace and most of the city as revenge for the burning of the Acropolis in Xerxes' Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BCE. This act was said to be instigated during a drunken party by Thais, the Athenian lover of the general Ptolemy, claiming it would be apt revenge for the city to be burnt "by women's hands", and she is said to have thrown her torch right after Alexander threw the first.

In the summer of 330 BCE, Darius III was assassinated by his own general and cousin Bessus, an act which Alexander was said to deplore. Darius III's corpse was treated with the greatest respect, as were the surviving members of his family. Alexander proclaimed himself the King of Asia and continued on with his conquest, marching into the region of modern-day Afghanistan. In 329 BCE, he founded the city of Alexandria-Eschate on the Iaxartes River, destroyed the city of Cyropolis, and defeated the Scythians at the northern borders of the empire. Between fall of 330 BCE and spring of 327 BCE, he campaigned against Bactria and Sogdiana, hard-fought battles which he won as he had every engagement thus far. Bessus was captured and executed for his treachery against his former king to send the message that disloyalty of that kind would never be rewarded.

Alexander founded many cities bearing his name during this time to further his public image not only as a "liberator" but as a god and adopted the title Shahanshah (King of Kings) used by the rulers of the First Persian Empire. In keeping with this status, Alexander introduced the Persian custom of proskynesis to the army, forcing those who addressed him to first kneel and kiss his hand.

The Macedonian troops became progressively uncomfortable with Alexander's apparent deification and adoption of Persian customs. Assassination plots were hatched (notably in 327 BCE) only to be revealed and the conspirators executed, even if they were old friends. Callisthenes became one of these when he was implicated in a plot. Cleitus, the elder statesman who had saved Alexander's life at the Battle of Granicus, would doom himself in a similar way. In c. 327 BCE Alexander would dispose of both Callisthenes and Cleitus, in separate incidents, for treason and questioning his authority, respectively.

Alexander's habit of drinking to excess was well known, and certainly in the case of Cleitus' death, significantly influenced the murder. Both Cleitus and Callisthenes had become quite vocal in their criticism of Alexander's adoption of Persian customs. Though capable of great diplomacy and skill in dealing with conquered peoples and their rulers, Alexander was not known for tolerating personal opinions which conflicted with his own, and this intolerance was exacerbated by drinking. Cleitus' death was swift, through a javelin Alexander hurled at him, while Callisthenes was imprisoned and died in confinement.

Map of Alexander the Great's ConquestsUS Military Academy (Public Domain)

India & Mutiny

In 327 BCE, with the Persian Empire firmly under his control and newly married to the Bactrian noblewoman Roxana (l. c. 340 to c. 310 BCE), Alexander turned his attention to India. Having heard of the exploits of the great Macedonian general, the Indian King Omphis of Taxila submitted to his authority without a fight, but the Aspasioi and Assakenoi tribes strongly resisted. In battles throughout 327 BCE and into 326 BCE, Alexander subdued these tribes, finally meeting King Porus of Paurava at the Battle of the Hydaspes River in 326 BCE.

Porus charged Alexander's forces with elephants and fought so bravely with his troops that, after defeating Porus, Alexander installed him as ruler of a larger region than he had previously held. Alexander's horse Bucephalus was killed in this battle, and Alexander named one of the two cities he founded after the battle 'Bucephala' after him.

Alexander intended to march on and cross the River Ganges toward further conquests, but his troops, worn out by the hard-fought battle with Porus (in which, according to Arrian, Alexander lost 1000 men), mutinied in 326 BCE and refused to go further. Alexander tried to persuade his men to press on but, failing to win them over, finally assented to their wishes. He split his army in two, sending half back to Susa by sea under the command of Admiral Nearchus through the Persian Gulf, and marching the other half on through the Gedrosian Desert in 325 BCE, almost a full year after his troops had mutinied.

His reasoning behind this decision, both the delay in withdrawal after the mutiny and the form it finally took, is still unclear and debated by historians. Even though he had abandoned his conquest of India, he still paused on his march to subdue those hostile tribes he encountered along the way. The harsh terrain of the desert, and the military engagements, took a great toll on his troops, and by the time they reached Susa in 324 BCE, Alexander had sustained considerable losses.

Upon his return, he found that many of the satraps he had entrusted with rule had abused their power and so executed them as well as those who had vandalized the tomb of Cyrus the Great (r. c. 550-530 BCE) at the old capital city of Pasargadae. He ordered the ancient capital and tomb to be restored and took other measures to integrate his army with the people of the region and merge the cultures of Persia and Macedonia.

Alexander held a mass marriage service at Susa in 324 BCE at which he married members of his senior staff to Persian princesses and noblewomen while he himself married a daughter of Darius III to further identify himself with Persian royalty. Many of his troops objected to this cultural merger and increasingly criticized his adoption of Persian dress and manners which he had affected since 329 BCE. They further objected to the promotion of Persians over Macedonians in the army and to Alexander's order merging Persian and Macedonian units. Alexander responded by appointing Persians to prominent positions in the army and awarded traditional Macedonian titles and honors to Persian units.

His troops backed down and submitted to Alexander's wishes, and in a gesture of goodwill, he returned the titles to the Macedonians and ordered a great communal feast at which he dined and drank with the army. He had already dropped the custom of proskynesis in deference to his men but continued to comport himself as a Persian, rather than Macedonian, king.

At about this time, in 324 BCE, his lifelong friend, possibly his lover, and his second-in-command, Hephaestion, died from a fever, though some reports suggest he may have been poisoned. The claim that Alexander was homosexual or bisexual is supported by biographies written after his death and Hephaestion is routinely noted as his lover as well as his best friend. Historians' accounts of Alexander's response to this event universally agree that his grief was insupportable.

Plutarch claims that Alexander slaughtered the Cossaeans of a neighboring town as a sacrifice to his friend, and Arrian writes that he had Hephaestion's doctor executed for failing to cure him. The manes and tails of the horses were cut as a sign of mourning, and Alexander refused to promote another to Hephaestion's position as commander of the cavalry. He abstained from food and drink and declared a period of mourning throughout his empire and funeral rites usually reserved for a king.

Alexander's Death

While still processing the grief of Hephaestion's death, Alexander returned to Babylon in 323 BCE with plans for expanding his empire but he would never realize them. He died at Babylon at the age of 32 on 10 or 11 June 323 BCE after suffering ten days of high fever. Theories concerning his cause of death have ranged from poisoning to malaria to meningitis to bacterial infection from drinking contaminated water (among others).

Plutarch says that, 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained his fleet admiral Nearcus and his friend Medius of Larissa with a long bout of drinking, after which he fell into a fever from which he never recovered. When he was asked who should succeed him, Alexander said, “the strongest”, which answer led to his empire being divided between four of his generals: Cassander, Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Seleucus (known as the Diadochi or 'successors').

Alexander Sarcophagus (detail)Carole Raddato (CC BY-SA)

Plutarch and Arrian, however, claim he passed his reign to Perdiccas, the friend of Hephaistion with whom Alexander had carried their friend's body to his funeral in Babylon. Perdiccas was also Alexander's friend as well as his bodyguard and fellow cavalryman, and it would make sense, considering Alexander's habit of rewarding those he was close to with favors, that he would choose Perdiccas over others. However that may be, following Alexander's death, the generals ignored his wishes and Perdiccas was assassinated in 321 BCE.

The Diadochi

His longtime comrade, Cassander, would order the execution of Alexander's wife Roxana, Alexander's son by her, and Alexander's mother Olympias to consolidate his power as the new King of Macedonia (a title he would later lose to Antigonus I and his heirs). Ptolemy I is said to have stolen Alexander's corpse as it was en route to Macedon and spirited it away to Egypt in hope of securing the prophecy that the land in which it was laid to rest would be prosperous and unconquerable. He would found the Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt which would last until 30 BCE, ending with the death of his descendant Cleopatra VII (l. 69-30 BCE).

Seleucus founded the Seleucid Empire (312-63 BCE), comprising Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and parts of India, and would be the last remaining of the Diadochi after the incessant 40 years of war between them and their heirs. He came to be known as Seleucus I Nicator (the unconquered, r. 305-281 BCE). None of Alexander's generals possessed his natural intelligence, understanding, or military genius but, even so, would found dynasties which, with exceptions, ruled their respective regions until the coming of Rome.

Their influence over the regions they controlled created what historians refer to as the Hellenistic Period in which Greek thought and culture became entwined with that of the indigenous populace. According to Diodorus Siculus, one of the stipulations of Alexander's will was the creation of a unified empire between former enemies. People of the Near East were to be encouraged to marry with those of Europe and those of Europe to do likewise; in so doing, a new Hellenistic culture would be embraced by all. Although the Diadochi failed in the peaceful fulfillment of his wishes, through the Hellenization of their empires they contributed to Alexander's dream of cultural unity; even if such unity could never be fully realized.

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Alexander the Great | Biography, Empire, Death, & Facts | Britannica

Alexander the Great - Wikipedia

Alexander the Great: Empire & Death | HISTORY

Alexander the Great

Alexander - Wikipedia

Alexander the Great | Timeline | Britannica

Alexander the Great | Achievements | Britannica

Who was Alexander the Great?

Alexander the Great (article) | Khan Academy

Alexander the Great - World History Encyclopedia

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bitpie苹果官网下载|alexander

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Alexander the Great | Biography, Empire, Death, & Facts | Britannica

Alexander the Great - Wikipedia

Alexander the Great: Empire & Death | HISTORY

Alexander the Great

Alexander - Wikipedia

Alexander the Great | Timeline | Britannica

Alexander the Great | Achievements | Britannica

Who was Alexander the Great?

Alexander the Great (article) | Khan Academy

Alexander the Great - World History Encyclopedia

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